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Evolution of Evolution
Timeline
1543
ASTRONOMY: Sun Recognized As Center of Solar System
Nicolaus Copernicus publishes “De revolutionibus orbium coelestium” (On the
Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres), the first scientific treatise supporting the idea
that the sun is at the center of the solar system.
1572
ASTRONOMY: Unchanging Heavens Challenged
Tycho Brahe determines that the nova of 1572 shows no parallax and therefore must
be in the realm of the fixed stars, challenging the accepted view that the heavens were
unchanging. His observations later influence Johannes Kepler's discovery of the laws of
planetary motion.
1603
ASTRONOMY: Laws of Planetary Motion Discovered
From 1603 to 1605, Johannes Kepler discovers the three laws of planetary motion: 1)
The Law of Ellipses, 2) The Equal Areas Law, and 3) The Harmonic Law.
1609
ASTRONOMY: Newly Discovered Telescope Used by Galileo
Galileo Galilei turns the newly discovered telescope to the sky. Within a year, he
discovers lunar craters and mountains, the phases of Venus, sunspots, the rotation of
the sun, and the satellites of Jupiter.
1633
ASTRONOMY: Galileo Sentenced to House Arrest
Galileo Galilei is sentenced to house arrest by the Inquisition for heresy for advancing
the Copernican model of planetary motion, which argues the sun, not the Earth, is at
the center of the solar system.
1669
GEOSCIENCES: Land Formation Explained by Geological Phases
Nils Steensen, known as Steno, explains how land acquired its current conformation. He
argues that marine fossils indicate a former sea bed, which was violently uplifted, and,
afterward, undermined by subterranean forces, causing the strata to breakup, become
eroded and, in due course, form another sea bed.
1689
ASTRONOMY: Principia Mathematica Published
Isaac Newton publishes “Principia Mathematica,” which describes the physical laws that
govern the motions of planets.
1718
ASTRONOMY: Position of Stars Found to Change
Using past measurements and his own observations, Edmond Halley discovers that
stars change their positions over time.
1728
ASTRONOMY: Stellar Aberration Discovered
James Bradley discovers stellar aberration. This is the first proof that the Earth moves.
1770
GEOSCIENCES: Fossilized Mosasaur Bones Found
The fossilized bones of a huge animal scientifically described in 1795 by Georges
Cuvier and later officially named a Mosasaur in 1822, are found in a quarry near
Maastricht in the Netherlands.
1772
POLAR SCIENCES: Geographic Distribution of Organisms Studied
Johann Forster sails to the Antarctic with James Cook. His voyage around the world
includes studies of the geographic distribution of organisms.
1775
ANTHROPOLOGY: Physical Anthropology Begins
Johann Friedrich Blumenbach publishes “de Generis Humani Varietate Nativa,” which
marks the beginning of physical anthropology.
1791
ASTRONOMY: Universe Described As Expanding and Contracting
Charles Darwin’s grandfather, Erasmus Darwin, pens the first description of a cyclical
expanding and contracting universe.
1799
GEOSCIENCES: World's First Geologic Map
William Smith maps rock formations near Bath, England, making the world's first
geologic map.
1804
GEOSCIENCES: Fossils Said to Be Remains of Noah’s Flood
In “Organic Remains of a Forme r World,” James Parkinson says fossils are the
remains of Noah’s Flood. In the next two volumes, he argues fossils are the remains of
a world before people.
1809
DARWIN: Darwin Born
Charles Robert Darwin is born Feb. 12, 1809, in Shrewsbury, Shropshire, England, on
the same day as Abraham Lincoln.
1809
BIOLOGY: Evolution Argued by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
Jean-Baptiste Monet de Lamarck, the first important proponent of evolution, states in
“Philosophy Zoologique,” that heritable changes in 'habits,' or behavior, could be
brought about by the environment, and that the use and disuse of parts could lead to
the production of new organs and the modification of old ones.
1811
GEOSCIENCES: Reptile Resembling Fish and Dolphins Found
Mary Anning discovers the fossilized remains of an ichthyosaur at Lyme Regis, Dorset,
England. Ichthyosaurs are giant marine reptiles that resembled fish and dolphins.
1812
GEOSCIENCES: Fossils Said to Occur in Chronological Order
Paleontologist Georges Cuvier argues the distribution of fossils in the rock record
proves fossils occur in the chronological order of creation: fish, amphibians, reptiles and
mammals. Cuvier supports the idea of a fixed number of species.
1817
DARWIN: Mother Dies
His mother, Susannah, dies. Darwin is eight years old.
1818
ANTHROPOLOGY: Natural Selection Linked to Humans
William Charles Wells conveys his principle of natural selection among human
populations, suggesting that African populations are selected for their relative
resistance to local diseases.
1818
BIOLOGY: ‘Homologous Parts’ — Natural Selection Among Humans
Étienne Geoffrey Saint-Hilaire develops the idea of ‘homologous parts,’ arguing parts
such as a bat’s wing and a man’s arm have the same evolutionary origin, but serve
different functions.. Also, W.C. Wells argues for natural selection among human
populations, suggesting African populations are selected for their relative resistance to
local diseases.
1818-1824
POLAR SCIENCES: Red Snow Studied
The John Ross and John Franklin expeditions return from the Canadian Arctic with “red
snow”—the first microbiological study in the polar regions.
1820
BIOLOGY: Gradual Development From Matter Described
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck describes the origin of living things as a process of gradual
development from matter.
1820
POLAR SCIENCES: Books on Arctic Environments Published
William Scoresby Jr., publishes several books from 1820 to 1823, describing Arctic
environments, whaling and whale biology, and several new Arctic animal species.
1821
GEOSCIENCES: Plesiosaur Skeleton Found
Mary Anning discovers the world's first Plesiosaur skeleton at Lyme Regis, Dorset,
England.
1823
GEOSCIENCES: Proof Man Lived With Woolly Mammoth
Human bones are found with those of a woolly mammoth at Paviland Cave on the
Gower peninsula, Wales, proving that the two lived on Earth at the same time.
1825
DARWIN: Darwin Studies Medicine
Darwin enrolls at the University of Edinburgh to study medicine, but he is not interested
in his studies.
1828
DARWIN: Darwin Studies Theology
Darwin enrolls at Cambridge University to study theology, but is happier collecting
beetles.
1829
GEOSCIENCES: Constancy of Change Argued By Lyell
Geologist Charles Lyell argues that the causes of change remain constant, and those
causes “must forever produce an endless variety of effects, both in the animate and
inanimate world.” Lyell’s work is thought to have paved the way for Darwin’s “On the
Origin of Species.”
1830
GEOSCIENCES: Principles of Geology Published
Charles Lyell publishes “Principles of Geology.” Charles Darwin later takes the book with
him aboard the HMS Beagle, a trip that helps form his ideas about evolution.
1831
POLAR SCIENCES: Magnetic North Pole Reached
James Clark Ross is the first person to reach the magnetic North Pole.
1831
DARWIN: HMS Beagle: Darwin’s First Examination of Evolution
Darwin begins a five-year voyage on the HMS Beagle. He considers differences among
mockingbirds in the Galapagos Islands, his first examination of the evolution of
species. His trip around the world lasts five years.
1834
DARWIN: Term “Scientist” Coined
William Whewell coins the term “scientist.” Whewell is one of the tutors at the University
of Cambridge whom Darwin meets during his education there.
1836
DARWIN: Beagle Fossils Organized
Darwin returns to London and starts organizing the specimens and fossils collected
during his voyage on the HMS Beagle.
1837
DARWIN: Darwin Draws Evolutionary Tree
Darwin draws a simple evolutionary tree in one of his notebooks below the words, “I
think.” The tree is an analogy representing common descent of all species.
1837
ASTRONOMY: Stellar Parallaxes Measured
Friedrich Struve (1837), Friedrich Bessel (1838) and Thomas Henderson (1839) create
detailed measurements of the apparent changes in position of stellar objects due to
changes in Earth’s position, leading researchers to discover that the sun is 93 million
miles away, while the next nearest star is 4.37 light years away.
1837
GEOSCIENCES: Earth Said to Have Past Ice Age
Swiss-American glaciologist and geologist, Louis Agassiz, scientifically proposes that the
Earth was subject to a past ice age.
1838
DARWIN: Theory of Natural Selection Developed
From 1838 to 1839, Darwin develops his theory of natural selection. He argues that
favorable, inheritable traits become more common in successive generations.
1839
DARWIN: Darwin Elected Royal Society Fellow
Darwin marries his cousin Emma Wedgwood. They will have 10 children. He also
becomes a Fellow of the Royal Society, where Charles becomes the third elected Darwin.
His family will hold father to son elections for 201 years until the death of his grandson,
Sir Charles Galton Darwin.
1841
GEOSCIENCES: Geologic Eras Proposed—“Dinosaur” Coined
William Smith’s nephew, John Phillips, formally proposes the geologic eras Paleozoic,
Mesozoic and Cainozoic (Cenozoic). Also in this year, English anatomist Sir Richard
Owen proposes the term Dinosauria (“terrible lizards”). He later will be an outspoken
critic of Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection.
1841
POLAR SCIENCES: Ross Ice Shelf Discovered
James Clark Ross discovers the Ross Ice Shelf, the largest ice shelf in Antarctica—an
area about the size of France.
1842
DARWIN: Darwin Sketches Theory of Evolution
Darwin writes the first sketch of his theory of evolution, which he calls transmutation. In
it he notes transmutation obeys strict laws of nature. During this time, Darwin thought
these "laws of nature" were set forth by God during creation. He also outlines reasons
not to publish his ideas.
1843
POLAR SCIENCES: Description of Emperor Penguin Published
Joseph Dalton Hooker publishes “The Zoology of the Antarctic Voyage of HM Ships
Erebus and Terror.” It includes the first definitive description of the emperor penguin.
1844
DARWIN: Secret Essay on Evolution
Darwin secretly writes an essay on evolution by natural selection and tells his wife to
have it published in the event of his death. Later he writes to English botanist Joseph
Dalton Hooker, telling him of his ideas about evolution, saying it is “like confessing a
murder.”
1847
POLAR SCIENCES: “Flora Antarctica” Published
Joseph Dalton Hooker publishes “Flora Antarctica,” still widely used as a reference.
1848
ANTHROPOLOGY: Neanderthal Man Discovered
A lieutenant preparing an artillery battery in old Forbes quarry in Gibraltar, England,
discovers a distinctive skull that scientists call Gibraltar Man. Later it comes to be called
Neanderthal Man.
1855
BIOLOGY: Evolution Seen As Universal Principle
Herbert Spencer begins publishing a projected 10 volume work concerning the principles
of synthetic philosophy, in which evolution is invoked as a universal principle that
involves progress through stages toward greater complexity.
1856
ANTHROPOLOGY: Early Variant of Homo Sapiens Found
Fossils found at Neanderthal in the Neander Valley near Dusseldorf, Germany, are
identified as an early variant of Homo sapiens.
1856
GEOSCIENCES: Theory of Multiple Creations
Louis Agassiz publishes “Essay on Classification,” advocating a theory of multiple
creations and contradicting both evolution and Noah’s ark.
1858
DARWIN: Wallace’s Theory of Natural Selection
Alfred Russel Wallace informs Darwin that he independently arrived at a theory of
natural selection nearly identical to Darwin’s. Both theories are presented to the Linnean
Society of London, the world’s oldest existing biological society. Response is subdued.
1858
BIOLOGY: Theory of Evolution Presented in London
The Darwin-Wallace paper is read to the Linnean Society of London.
1858
GEOSCIENCES: First U.S. Dinosaur Skeleton Excavated
The first dinosaur skeleton, a hadrosaurus, is excavated in the United States and
described by Joseph Leidy.
1859
ASTRONOMY: Origin of Species Published
“On The Origin of Species” is published. Some argue astronomers, such as Pierre-
Simon de Laplace, paved the way for its acceptance with prior discussions of
cosmological evolution.
1859
POLAR SCIENCES: “On The Origin of Species” Published
“On The Origin of Species” is published. Darwin’s trip to New Zealand’s Polar Regions in
1835 aboard the HMS Beagle helps shape his ideas.
1859
DARWIN: Origin of Species Published
“On The Origin of Species” is published. The initial printing of 1,250 copies nearly sells
out in a day at a price of 15 shillings.
1859
ANTHROPOLOGY: “On The Origin of Species” Published
“On The Origin of Species” is published. It does not overtly mention the evolution of
man.
1859
BIOLOGY: “On The Origin of Species” Published
“On The Origin of Species” is published. It forever changes how the world views living
organisms.
1859
GEOSCIENCES: “On The Origin of Species” Published
“On The Origin of Species” is published. Darwin, an experienced geologist and secretary
of the London Geological Society from 1838 to 1841, devotes a large part of it to
geological evidence.
1860
DARWIN: Darwin’s Theory Attacked
Samuel Wilberforce, a bishop in the Church of England, attacks Darwin’s theory at a
meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. Biologist Thomas
Huxley, known as “Darwin’s Bulldog,” and Joseph Hooker defend Darwin’s work.
1861
GEOSCIENCES: Removal of "Creation" Date From Bible Proposed
Geological Society of London President Leonard Horner proposes removing the world's
"creation" date of 4004 BC from the English Bible, citing geological evidence of a much
older planet.
1862
ASTRONOMY: Earth and Sun Said to Be Cooling
Physicist Lord Kelvin asserts that the Earth and sun are cooling from their initial
formation, between 20 and 400 million years ago.
1866
ANTHROPOLOGY: Human Family Tree Proposed
Ernst Haeckel proposes a hypothetical family tree that begins with a speechless ape-
man and leads to Homo sapiens. His tree incorporates several principles of Darwinian
evolution.
1866
BIOLOGY: Foundational Work for Biology Published
Gregor Mendel publishes “Experiments in Plant Hybridization.” This is a foundational
work for all of biology.
1867
DARWIN: Darwin Struggles With Theory of Acquired Characters
Darwin uses Jean-Baptiste Lamarck's theory of acquired characters to explain why
variation would not be eliminated by inheritance from a blend of the parents. Lamarck's
theory is dismissed only in 1900 with the rediscovery of Johann Gregor Mendel’s idea of
unit characters.
1867
BIOLOGY: Portions of ‘Origin’ Rewritten
Fleeming Jenkin’s review of “On The Origin of Species” argues variation would be
eliminated by inheritance from a blend of the parents. The criticism causes Darwin, in
subsequent editions, to resurrect Lamarck’s theory of acquired characters. Lamarck's
theory is put aside only in 1900, when Mendel’s idea of unit characters is rediscovered.
1868
ANTHROPOLOGY: Humanity Divided—Cro-magnon Man Discovered
Ernst Haeckel subdivides humanity into 12 species. He asserts evolution consists of 22
phases, the 21st being the "missing link" between apes and humans. Also, French
geologist, Louis Lartet, discovers ancient skeletons that he calls Cro-magnon Man, who
is thought to be more evolved than Neanderthal Man.
1869
ASTRONOMY: Journal Nature First Published
English scientist and astronomer Joseph Lockyer starts the scientific journal Nature.
1869
BIOLOGY: DNA Isolated
Swiss physician Friedrich Miescher isolates DNA after discovering a microscopic substance
in the pus of discarded surgical bandages.
1871
DARWIN: “The Descent of Man” Published
Darwin publicizes “The Descent of Man.” It overtly applies evolution to humans and
shocks Darwin's opponents.
1871
BIOLOGY: Sudden Arise of Species Argued
St. George Mivart argues that species arise suddenly with large-scale changes already
intact. This is in sharp contrast to Darwin, who proposed inheritance by blending,
meaning that variation would be sustained by an extremely high mutation rate.
1871
ANTHROPOLOGY: “The Descent of Man” Published
Darwin publishes “The Descent of Man.” He overtly applies evolution to humans and
postulates Africa as the site of the earliest human ancestors.
1871
GEOSCIENCES: Lord Kelvin Suggests Life From Meteorite
Mathematical physicist and engineer William Thomson, aka Lord Kelvin, suggests that
“the germs of life might have been brought to the earth by some meteorite.” The idea
still enjoys support.
1872
DARWIN: Boltzmann Supports Theory of Evolution
Ludwig Boltzmann argues the spontaneous increase in decay or disorder predicted by
the second law of thermodynamics is not germane to Darwin’s theory of evolution
because it affects paths followed by large populations of objects, but may or may not
affect individual objects wherein evolutionary change takes place.
1873
BIOLOGY: Effects on Isolated Groups Emphasized
Moritz Wagner emphasizes the effects of different environments on isolated groups of
animals.
1875
BIOLOGY: Heredity, Environment, and Behavioral Traits Emphasized
Francis Galton demonstrates “the usefulness of twin studies for elucidating the relative
influence of nature (heredity) and nurture (environment) upon behavioral traits.”
1876
BIOLOGY: Special Contribution to Evolution Published
Wallace publishes his special contribution to the study of evolution, “The Geography of
Animal Distribution.”
1876
POLAR SCIENCES: Study of Plants and Climate Published
H.W. Fielden and H.C. Hart publish “The Greenland Manual,” which includes the study of
plants and their relation to climate.
1879
GEOSCIENCES: U.S. Geological Survey Established
United States President Rutherford B. Hayes establishes The United States Geological
Survey within the Department of the Interior to classify the public lands, and examine
the geological structure, mineral resources and products of the national domain.
1882
DARWIN: Darwin Dies
Charles Darwin dies on April 19, 1882, in the village of Downe in the London Borough of
Bromley, England, where he lived for 40 years. Darwin was given a state funeral and
buried in Westminster Abbey, a few feet away from Sir Isaac Newton.
1882
GEOSCIENCES: Darwin Publishes Final Letter to Nature
Charles Darwin publishes his final letter in the journal Nature, on the dispersal of
freshwater bivalves. His obituary appears the same month.
1883
BIOLOGY: Germ-line Theory Refutes Acquired Characters
August Weismann refutes Jean-Baptiste Monet de Lamarck's theory that acquired
characters can be inherited. His 'germ-line theory’ makes it possible to understand the
genetics of animals, but not plants. As a result, it is believed that evolution can be
understood without understanding how organisms develop.
1883
ANTHROPOLOGY: Human Psychology Compared to Animals
George John Romanes publishes “Mental Evolution in Animals,” the first modern text
comparing the psychology of humans and animals in objective terms.
1883
GEOSCIENCES: Cryptozoon Defined
James Hall defines cabbage-like, reef-forming fossil algae found in oceans as
“cryptozoon.” Cryptozoon will be important to understanding molecular evolution and
the evolutionary history of life.
1886
ANTHROPOLOGY: Neanderthal Skeletons Not Modern Humans
Two complete Neanderthal skeletons are found in a cave near Spy, Belgium. The
skeletons challenge the idea that Neanderthals are modern humans.
1891
ANTHROPOLOGY: Java Man Discovered
Eugene Dubois discovers, on the island of Java, remains of what he calls "a species in
between humans and apes." He names his find Pithecanthropus erectus, or Java Man.
Today, similar finds are classified as Homo erectus.
1897
ASTRONOMY: Sun Said to Be 20 Million Years Old
Lord Kelvin gives a lecture at London's Victoria Institute claiming that the sun, which is
cooling from its initial formation, can be no more than 20 million years old. The lecture
represents a further refining of his earlier finding.
1897
POLAR SCIENCES: Small Mites Discovered in Antarctica
Discovery of small mites and collumbola, abundant among the mosses and lichens in
Antarctica.
1900
BIOLOGY: Mendel’s Work on Inheritance Rediscovered
Hugo de Vries, Carl Correns and Erik von Tschermak rediscover Gregor Mendel’s
genetics work on inheritance traits in pea plants. Mendel’s work shows that the
inheritance of traits follows particular laws, which are later named after him.
1901
BIOLOGY: Saltation Theory Developed
Hugo de Vries discovers a primrose that leads to the Saltation Theory, which says "new
species" suddenly spring into existence through "mutation," rather than by
imperceptible, gradual changes, as Darwin had proposed. In 1914, Edward Jefferies
discovers the primrose was a new variety, not a new species.
1901
POLAR SCIENCES: Antarctic Sea Birds Studied
From 1901 to 1912, Edward Wilson studies the characteristics, life histories and
behavior of Antarctic sea birds on both of Captain Robert Falcon Scott’s two expeditions
to the Antarctic region.
1902
GEOSCIENCES: Tyrannosaurus Rex Discovered
Barnum Brown of the American Museum of Natural History discovers Tyrannosaurus rex.
It’s later described and named by Henry Fairfield Osborn in 1905.
1905
ASTRONOMY: Special Theory of Relativity Proposed
Albert Einstein publishes "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies," in which he
proposes the Special Theory of Relativity, arguing that space and time are not separate
continuums.
1907
GEOSCIENCES: First Radiometric Dating Techniques
Chemist Bertram Boltwood measures the ratio of isotopes of uranium and lead in a
mineral from Connecticut and concludes the mineral formed 410 million years ago. His
estimate will be changed to 265 million, but his experiment lays the groundwork for
radiometric dating techniques.
1908
POLAR SCIENCES: North Pole Claimed by Cook
American explorer Frederick Albert Cook claims to reach the North Pole. His claims are
disputed.
1909
BIOLOGY: Evolutionary Relationships Among Species Studied
Edward Tyson Reichert begins studying evolutionary relationships among species using
differences in their hemoglobin molecules.
1909
POLAR SCIENCES: North Pole Claimed by Peary
American Navy engineer Robert Edwin Peary claims to reach the North Pole. His claims
are disputed.
1910
POLAR SCIENCES: Fossilized Glossopteris Discovered
Between 1910 and 1913, members of Captain Robert Falcon Scott’s Terra Nova
Expedition discover fossilized Glossopteris leaves belonging to an order of seed ferns in
the Antarctic region, an important link with other continents that once formed a
supercontinent called Gondwana, originally called Gondwanaland.
1911
ASTRONOMY: Color or Spectral Class of Stars Plotted
Ejnar Hertzsprung published graphs plotting color, or spectral class, against the
absolute magnitude of stars.
1911
POLAR SCIENCES: Geographic South Pole Reached
Norwegian Roald Amundsen and his party are first to reach the Geographic South Pole.
Amundsen names the plateau surrounding the Pole Haakon VII's Vidde, in honour of
King Haakon VII of Norway.
1912
ANTHROPOLOGY: Piltdown Man Found
Parts of a jaw and skull found in England are dubbed Piltdown Man. The report of a
dentist, in 1916, who said someone had filed down the teeth, is ignored. In 1953
Piltdown Man is shown to be a hoax.
1912
GEOSCIENCES: Continental Drift Proposed
Alfred Wegener proposes the theory of continental drift. His ideas will be almost
completely ignored until the late 1960s.
1912
ASTRONOMY: Redshift Discovered
Vesto Slipher is the first to observe the shift of spectral lines of galaxies, also known as
redshift, which will be important for later discoveries regarding an expanding universe.
1913
ASTRONOMY: Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram
Henry Norris Russell presents graphs similar to Ejnar Hertzsprung’s graphs. These are
now called Hertzsprung-Russell, or HR, diagrams and are the basis of the theory of
stellar evolution. Russell also suggested that nuclear energy is generated inside stars
when they reach a critical temperature.
1913
ANTHROPOLOGY: Neanderthal Man Reconstructed
Marcelin Boule reconstructs the Le Chapelle Neanderthal. He misdiagnoses certain
conditions of the skeleton, reconstructing it with a bent, stooped knee posture and
ambling walk.
1915
ASTRONOMY: General Theory of Relativity Published
Albert Einstein publishes the “General Theory of Relativity,” which relates gravity to
space-time. It is the current description of gravity in modern physics.
1917
ASTRONOMY: Evolution of Gaseous Stars Described
James Hopwood Jeans describes a general theory of the configuration of equilibrium of
compressible and non-homogeneous masses of astronomical matter, enabling him to
explain the behavior of certain nebulae and describe the evolution of gaseous stars.
1917
ANTHROPOLOGY: Nebraska Man Found, Scopes Monkey Trial Evidence
Geologist Harold Cook finds a single molar tooth in Nebraska which later is named
Hesperopithecus, or "Nebraska Man." An "apeman" picture based on the tooth becomes
key evidence in the 1925 Scopes Monkey trial. In 1928, paleontologists discover the
rest of the skeleton. The tooth belongs to an extinct pig.
1917
BIOLOGY: Alternative to Survival of the Fittest Argued
D'Arcy Thompson, in “On Growth and Form,” takes basic body plans and changes their
size and position relative to one another in geometric ways, showing how evolution
might have occurred. He argues biologists overemphasize survival of the fittest. He
argues for structuralism as an alternative to survival of the fittest.
1918
ASTRONOMY: Novae Described—Henry Draper Catalogue Published
Novae are shown to be preexisting faint stars which brightened suddenly, rather than
new stars coming into existence. Also, Annie Jump Cannon publishes “The Henry Draper
Catalogue” of stars. It gives spectroscopic classifications for 225,300 stars.
1918
BIOLOGY: Darwinian and Mendelian Views Reconciled
Ronald A. Fisher publishes “The Correlation Between Relatives on the Supposition of
Mendelian Inheritance,” which leads the way to reconciling Darwinian and Mendelian
views of evolution.
1921
GEOSCIENCES: Mountain Building Proposed Cause for Dinosaur Extinction
Fossil mammal expert William Diller Matthew suggests dinosaurs were driven extinct by
mountain building, continental uplift and replacement by mammals.
1922
ASTRONOMY: Einstein’s Equations Could Describe Expanding Universe
Russian mathematician and meteorologist Aleksandr Friedmann asserts that Einstein’s
equations could describe an expanding universe.
1923
ASTRONOMY: Space-based Telescopes Proposed
German scientist Hermann Oberth, along with Robert Goddard and Konstantin
Tsiolkovsky, considered the three fathers of modern rocketry, propose propelling a
telescope into Earth orbit by a rocket.
1924
ASTRONOMY: Mass-luminosity Relationship Discovered
Arthur Eddington discovers the relationship between a star’s intrinsic brightness and its
mass, the so-called mass-luminosity relationship.
1925
ANTHROPOLOGY: Description of Australopithecus Published
Raymond Dart publishes the first description of the new genus Australopithecus based
on the Taung child skull found in 1924 in Buxton Limeworks in South Africa.
Identification of this ape-man as a human ancestor is skeptically received, particularly
since its small brain and large teeth are opposite of Piltdown Man.
1926
ASTRONOMY: A Key to Stellar Evolution Discovered
In 1926 and 1927, Hermann Vogt and Henry Norris Russell independently discover a
star’s mass and its chemical composition determine its structure. Their findings are
important for determining a star’s life-history, a chief aspect of stellar evolution.
1926
POLAR SCIENCES: North Pole Sighted—Arctic Ecology Described
Norwegian Roald Amundsen makes the first undisputed sighting of the North Pole from
the airship Norge and Alwin Pedersen publishes the first detailed accounts of the
ecology of Arctic birds and mammals in Northeast Greenland, where he has spent
several years working with trappers. He publishes several accounts until 1962.
1928
ANTHROPOLOGY: Milestone Book: “The Antiquity of Man” Published
Sir Arthur Keith develops his version of the human family tree. Keith, one of Britain’s
most respected researchers is taken in by the Piltdown Man hoax. His book, “The
Antiquity of Man,” is a milestone in evolutionary research.
1929
ASTRONOMY: Expanding Universe Discovered—Energy Source for Stars
Edwin Powell Hubble discovers that “red shift” increases with distance, showing that
galaxies are moving apart with a speed that is proportional to their distance. The
finding is further evidence the universe is expanding. George Gamow also speculates
that hydrogen fusion is the energy source for stars.
1929
GEOSCIENCES: Cause for Dinosaur Extinction—Transitional Animal Found
Paleobiologist Alexander Audova publishes a paper rejecting racial senility as the cause
of dinosaur extinction instead pointing to environmental change. Also beginning this
year through 1934, expeditions led by Gunnar Save-Soderbergh find remains of a
transitional animal between fish and amphibian on Greenland. The species is named
Ichthyostega soderberghi.
1930
BIOLOGY: Clandestine Evolution—Genetical Theory of Natural Selection
Gavin de Beer theorizes an organism’s anatomy develops through acceleration and
retardation. His clandestine evolution explains sudden changes in the fossil record
which are apparently at odds with Darwin's gradualist theory of evolution. R.A. Fisher
publishes, “The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection,” which reconciles Mendelian
genetics with natural selection.
1930
ASTRONOMY: Reliable Age for the Universe
Astrophysicist Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar describes the maximum mass of a white
dwarf star above which the star will collapse into a neutron star or a black hole.
“Chandrasekhar's limit” later is used to show the universe is speeding up, not slowing
down as expected. Chandrasekhar receives the Nobel Prize in 1983.
1931
BIOLOGY: 'Random Drift’ Significant Factor in Evolution
Sewall Wright concludes that 'random drift,' or chance fluctuation of gene populations, is
a significant factor in evolution. His works contribute to the Modern Synthesis, the
combining of natural selection and Mendelian genetics.
1933
BIOLOGY: Genetics, Development and Evolution Integrated
Richard Goldschmidt concludes evolution is the result of sudden changes by successful
mutations that act on early embryological processes. Goldschmidt is considered the first
to integrate genetics, development and evolution.
1933
POLAR SCIENCES: Most Southerly Plants Found
The second Byrd Expedition (1933-1935) finds lichens, a type of fungus, half way up
the Scott Glacier. They are the most southerly plants yet found.
1936
ANTHROPOLOGY: Adult Australopithecus Fossils Discovered
Robert Broom discovers the first adult Australopithecus at Sterkfontein and establishes
it as an early hominid. Over the next 10 years, more fossils representing two separate
species Australopithecine are found at Kromdrai, Swartkrans and other sites in
Transvaal Province, South Africa, dating from 1.8 to 2.5 million years ago.
1938
ASTRONOMY: Energy Source for Stars Proved
Hans Bethe and colleagues publish a series of papers in a treatise called “Energy
Production in Stars,” which explains all the known facts of stellar energy and proves the
presence of nuclear reactions. He wins the Nobel Prize for this work in 1967.
1942
BIOLOGY: “The Modern Synthesis” Published
In “The Modern Synthesis,” Julian Huxley brings together ideas from several biological
specialties to form a unified theory of evolution.
1942
GEOSCIENCES: Contributions to Neo-Darwinian Synthesis
Ernst Mayr publishes “Systematics and the Origin of Species,” and Julian Huxley
publishes “Evolution: The Modern Synthesis.” Both books are significant contributions to
the neo-Darwinian synthesis combining elements of natural selection, genetics,
mutation, population biology and paleontology.
1944
BIOLOGY: Living Organisms Said to Pass Along Information
Erwin Schrödinger publishes “What is Life?” In it he argues that living organisms store
and pass along information. This book will inspire James Watson, Francis Crick and
Maurice Wilkins, who will share the Nobel Prize for discovering, in 1953, the structure of
DNA.
1947
ANTHROPOLOGY: “Up From The Ape” Published, Includes Piltdown Man
Harvard anthropology professor Earnest Hooton publishes “Up From The Ape,” a
treatise on human evolution. His evolution tree includes the Piltdown Man on the main
stem leading to modern humans.
1947
GEOSCIENCES: Carbon-14 Dating
Willard Libby introduces carbon-14 dating.
1948
ASTRONOMY: Steady State Cosmology Proposed—Hale Telescope.
Steady State Cosmology, which hypothesizes continuous creation of matter, is proposed
by Hermann Bondi, Thomas Gold and Fred Hoyle. The Palomar Observatory in San
Diego County, Calif., also opens this year. Its 200 inch Hale telescope helps
understand distant galaxies and quasars. Edwin Hubble is first to use the telescope.
1948
BIOLOGY: Transposition of Mobile Genetic Elements Discovered
Barbara McClintock discovers the transposition of mobile genetic elements, i.e., they
change position on the chromosome. She receives a Nobel Prize for her work in 1983.
1950
ASTRONOMY: Term "Big Bang'' Coined
British astronomer Fred Hoyle coins the term "big bang'' to describe the theory that the
universe was born at one moment, about ten thousand million years ago and its
galaxies are still expanding. Hoyle meant the term as a rebuke, arguing instead that
the universe is in a steady state.
1951
ANTHROPOLOGY: Physical Anthropology Redefined
Sherwood Washburn publishes “The New Physical Anthropology,” emphasizing
multidisciplinary and integrative approaches to understanding human evolution through
genetics, behavioral and anatomical studies of humans and nonhuman primates in
both the laboratory and field.
1953
ANTHROPOLOGY: Use of Fire at Kalambo Falls, Zambia
J. Desmond Clark finds evidence of fire use at an archeological site in Kalambo Falls,
Zambia. Use of the site dates from 300,000 years to 250 A.D.
1953
BIOLOGY: First Accurate Model of DNA Published
James Watson, Francis Crick and Maurice Wilkins publish the first accurate model of
DNA structure in the journal Nature. They were awarded the Nobel Prize for this work in
1962.
1956
GEOSCIENCES: Meteorite Impact Proposed Cause For Dinosaur Extinction
Paleontologist M.W. de Laubenfels publishes a paper suggesting that the dinosaurs
were driven to extinction by a meteorite impact. His paper will not be taken seriously,
but this hypothesis will be presented again in 1980 with more compelling evidence.
1957
ASTRONOMY: Origin of Elements Proposed
William Fowler, Margret Burbridge, Geoffrey Burbridge and Fred Hoyle explain how
nuclear reactions in stars convert one chemical element or isotope into another to
produce the universe's existing elements. William Fowler receives the Nobel Prize for his
contribution to their paper, “Synthesis of the Elements in Stars” in 1983.
1959
ANTHROPOLOGY: 1.75 Million-Year-Old Skull Found
Louis and Mary Leakey discover the skull of Zinjanthropus bosei, an early hominid
dated using a potassium-argon method to 1.75 million years ago. They make the
discovery at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania. It is their first major find and the first major
early hominid find in eastern Africa.
1959
POLAR SCIENCES: First Illustrated Work on Arctic Plant Life Published
Nicholas Polunin publishes the first comprehensive and illustrated “Circumpolar Arctic
Flora,” his first volume in a projected series of four books dealing with the plants of the
Arctic.
1960
ANTHROPOLOGY: First Species of Homo Genus Possibly Found
Louis and Mary Leakey discover Homo habilis at Olduvai Gorge in northern Tanzania.
Homo habilis is arguably the first species of the genus Homo.
1960
POLAR SCIENCES: Hidden Mountain Ranges Discovered in Antarctica
Radio echo, sub-ice topography in Antarctica reveals hidden mountain ranges.
1961
BIOLOGY: Game Theory Apply to Evolutionary Biology
Richard C. Lewontin is the first to apply game theory to evolutionary biology. The
application pits species against nature in seeking survival strategies.
1962
ANTHROPOLOGY: Humans and Chimpanzees Closely Related
Morris Goodman first proposes that humans and chimpanzees are more closely related
than chimpanzees and gorillas based on immunochemical evidence.
1963
ASTRONOMY: Concept of Supermassive Stars — Discovery of Quasars
William Fowler and Fred Hoyle introduce the concept of supermassive stars—
hypothetical stars whose mass exceeds 60 times the mass of the sun. Also, the
discovery of quasars provides observational evidence that the early universe differed
from the universe of today.
1964
BIOLOGY: Existence of Sterile Castes in Insects Explained
William D. Hamilton defines 'inclusive fitness' as a formal way to show that relatives
have evolutionary effects on each other, as a result of shared genes. Hamilton’s idea
expands Darwin's explanation of the existence of sterile castes in insects and is a
foundation of sociobiology.
1964
GEOSCIENCES: Climate Linked to Evolution of Multicelluar Life
W. Brian Harland and Martin J.S. Rudwick publish a theory that the earth experienced a
great ice age in the Neoproterozoic (late Precambrian). Rudwick suggests that the
climate's return to moderate conditions paved the way for the evolution of multicelluar
life.
1965
ASTRONOMY: Kelvin Background Radiation Discovered
Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson discover the 3 degree Kelvin background radiation,
theorized as a relic of the big bang. Also called cosmic background radiation, this is
radiation emitted when the universe was very hot.
1965
BIOLOGY: Molecular Sequences Said to Reveal Evolutionary Relationships
Emile Zuckerkandl and Linus Pauling argue that molecular sequences can reveal
evolutionary relationships in such a way that observable characteristics and molecular
functions cannot.
1966
ANTHROPOLOGY: Diversity Results From Environmental Stress
Paul T. Baker pioneeres anthropological research on human population biology viewing
diversity as an adaptive response to environmental stress.
1966
BIOLOGY: Previously Unknown Levels of Genetic Variation Revealed
John Hubby and Richard Lewontin use starch gel electrophoreses to reveal previously
unknown high levels of genetic variation within populations. Their work is the foundation
of the field of molecular genetics.
1966
GEOSCIENCES: Reexamination of Burgess Shale Fossils
Harry Whittington begins reexamining Burgess Shale fossils originally identified by
Charles Walcott, starting in 1909. During the next two decades, Whittington (with the
assistance of graduate students Simon Conway Morris and *Derek Briggs) will overturn
some of Walcott's theories and propose that most of the animals left no living relatives.
1966
POLAR SCIENCES: First Deep Ice Core Samples in Greenland
The first deep ice core to penetrate the total ice thickness (1387 meters) at Camp
Century in northwestern Greenland, allows scientists to reconstruct global climatic history
from snow sediments.
1967
ANTHROPOLOGY: Split Between Chimpanzees and Humans Proposed
Vincent Sarich and Allan Wilson publish an immunological time scale for human
evolution, placing the split between chimpanzee and human at about five million years
ago.
1968
BIOLOGY: Neutral Theory of Evolution Developed
Japanese biologist Motoo Kimura develops the neutral theory of evolution. The theory
suggests almost all evolution at the molecular level is due to random drift. The idea
contrasts with neo-Darwinians, who believe natural selection is more prominent.
1970
ASTRONOMY: Singularity Theorem Proved
Stephen Hawking proves the first of many singularity theorems that provide a set of
sufficient conditions for the existence of a singularity, i.e., a point in space-time in
which gravitational forces cause matter to have an infinite density and zero volume.
1970
BIOLOGY: Synthetic Theory of Evolution—Gene Duplication
Richard Lewontin argues the synthetic theory of evolution should be expanded to
include multiple units of selection. Meanwhile, Susumu Ohno publishes “Evolution by
Gene Duplication,” arguing that duplicated genes accumulate, then mutate to have
previously nonexistent functions. Gene duplication will be seen as a major process in
evolution.
1972
ANTHROPOLOGY: Theory of 'Punctuated Equilibria’ Presented
Stephen J. Gould and Niles Eldredge argue that evolution proceeds over time by
'punctuated equilibria,' or periods of inactivity punctuated by episodic events, rather
than by slow gradualism. They also argue that the record of fossil remains found in
ancient rock layers is in fact accurate.
1972
BIOLOGY: Theory of 'Punctuated Equilibria’ Presented
Stephen J. Gould and Niles Eldredge argue that evolution proceeds over time by
'punctuated equilibria,' or periods of inactivity punctuated by episodic events, rather
than by a slow gradual process.
1972
GEOSCIENCES: ‘Punctuated Equilibria’ Proposed—Warm-blooded Dinosaurs
Stephen Jay Gould and Niles Eldredge publish their theory of punctuated equilibria,
stating that evolution often occurs in short bursts, followed by long periods of stability.
Also this year, Bob Bakker publishes "Anatomical and Ecological Evidence of Endothermy
in Dinosaurs" in the journal Nature, arguing that dinosaurs were warm-blooded animals.
1972
POLAR SCIENCES: Work on Physiological Adaptations of Mammals Published
After 40 years of research, Laurence Irving publishes the first comprehensive work on
the physiological adaptations of Arctic birds and mammals, including man.
1973
POLAR SCIENCES: Polar Bear Agreement Signed
The first circumpolar and international agreement on the conservation and
management of the polar bear is signed by the United States, USSR, Denmark, Canada
and Norway.
1974
ASTRONOMY: Hawking Radiation Calculated
Stephen Hawking calculates that black holes should thermally create and emit
subatomic particles, known today as Hawking radiation, until they exhaust their energy
and evaporate.
1974
ANTHROPOLOGY: Potential Missing Link Lucy Found
Donald Johanson recovers the skeletal remains of a female hominid dated to 2.8
million years ago. His team describes her as a new species, Australopithecus afarenis
and nicknames the female hominid Lucy, a potential missing link.
1974
POLAR SCIENCES: Tundra Seen As Key to Global Warming
Tundra, areas in which tree growth is hindered by low temperatures and short growing
seasons, is developed as a key subject in the emerging subject of global warming.
1975
ANTHROPOLOGY: Lucy Displayed As Common Ancestor
Lucy is displayed as the common ancestor of all later homonids in a new evolutionary
tree.
1975
BIOLOGY: DNA Further Defined—Human and Chimpanzee Differences
Fredrick Sanger and colleagues develop a 'plus and minus' system to determine
sequences of bases on DNA strands. Mary King and Alan Wilson publish “Evolution at
Two Levels in Humans and Chimpanzees.” They propose gene regulation, rather than
structural genes, is responsible for differences between humans and chimpanzees.
1975
ASTRONOMY: Very Large Array Radio Astronomy Observatory
Construction begins on the Very Large Array radio astronomy observatory, which
consists of 27 independent antennas, each having a dish 25 meters in diameter. The
observatory investigates radio galaxies, quasars, pulsars and supernovae. Operators
also follow up a seemingly extraterrestrial 72-second signal observed by the SETI
(Search for Extra-terrestrial Intelligence) project.
1978
ANTHROPOLOGY: 3.5 Million-Year-Old Hominid Footprints Found
Mary Leakey’s group uncovers a trail of 3.5 million-year-old bipedal hominid footprints
left in a layer of volcanic ash in Laetoli, Tanzania.
1979
BIOLOGY: Adaptionist Theories of Evolution Challenged
Richard Lewontin and Stephen Gould take issue with the adaptionist perspective, that all
traits are molded by natural selection, and parody adaptationism as “Panglossian.”
1980
ASTRONOMY: 'Inflationary' Theory of the Early Universe Proposed
Alan Guth proposes 'Inflationary' theory of the early universe. The theory proposes a
period of extremely rapid, exponential, expansion of the universe during its first few
moments. The theory attempts to explain several puzzles with the standard big bang
theory, among them, problems of the universe's homogeneity and flatness.
1980
GEOSCIENCES: Giant Comet Theory
Luis Alvarez, Walter Alvarez, Frank Asaro and Helen Michel propose a giant comet or
asteroid may have struck Earth around 65 million years ago, causing massive
extinctions and enriching iridium in the Earth’s K-T layer. The theory gains support in
1991, when the Chicxulub crater is discovered in the Yucatán Peninsula.
1982
ASTRONOMY : Cosmological Model of Universe Creation Proposed
Alexander Vilenkin suggests a cosmological model in which the universe is
spontaneously created from literally nothing. In Vilenkin’s model, the universe does not
have a singularity at the big bang and does not require any initial or auxiliary
conditions that must be satisfied.
1982
POLAR SCIENCES: Proof Antarctica and South America Were Once Connected
A fossil mammal discovered on Seymour Island proves Antarctica and South America
were connected as recently as 40 million years ago.
1984
ANTHROPOLOGY: Homo ergaster Skeleton Discovered
Alan Walker and Richard Leakey discover a nearly complete skeleton of an adolescent
boy described as Homo ergaster. The find is made in West Turkana, Kenya. Later,
most anthropologists consider these to be Homo erectus skeletons.
1984
BIOLOGY: Study of Evolution at DNA Level Begins
Kary Mullis develops the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), which opens up evolutionary
studies at the DNA level. In 1993, Mullis is awarded the Nobel Prize for this
development.
1984
GEOSCIENCES: Regularly Spaced Mass Extinctions Proposed
David Raup and Jack Sepkoski publish the controversial claim that mass extinctions are
regularly spaced at 26 million years.
1985
POLAR SCIENCES: Antarctic Ozone Hole Discovered
Joseph Farman, Brian Gardiner and Jonathan Shanklin discover the Antarctic ozone hole.
1986
POLAR SCIENCES: First Dinosaur Discovered in Antarctica
Eduardo Olivero and Roberto Scasso discover an armored, quadrupedal, plant-eating,
late Cretaceous period dinosaur on James Ross Island. It is the first dinosaur
discovered in Antarctica.
1987
ANTHROPOLOGY: DNA Traced to Common African Ancestor
Rebecca L. Cann, Mark Stoneking and Allan C. Wilson develop a genealogical tree that
suggests all human mitochondrial DNA can be traced back to a common African
maternal ancestor, dubbed African Eve by the press.
1987
GEOSCIENCES: Most Complete Devonian Tetrapod Discovered
Jenny Clack finds Acanthostega, the most complete Devonian tetrapod yet discovered.
It has evidence of functional gills as well as legs, strongly suggesting that animals
evolved legs while still living in the water.
1988
OLAR SCIENCES: Evidence of Larger Antarctic Ice Sheet Found
Seafloor drilling shows that a much larger Antarctic ice sheet existed 35 million years
ago.
1989
ASTRONOMY: Reliable Age for the Universe
NASA launches the COBE satellite to study cosmological background radiation; in 2001,
it launches the WMAP mission to study background microwave radiation. The missions
establish a reliable age for the universe and confirm its geometry is flat. The findings
garner astrophysicists John Mather and George Smoot III the Nobel Prize in 2006.
1990
ANTHROPOLOGY: Evolutionary Tree Gets New Species—Language Natural Adaptation
Researchers add Homo ergaster and Homo antecessor to the evolutionary tree. The
species complicate the evolutionary tree and later are considered to be Homo erectus.
Also, Steven Pinker and Paul Bloom argue that languages are naturally selected
biological adaptations by Homo sapiens, not a side effect of other evolutionary forces.
1990
ASTRONOMY: Hubble Space Telescope Launched
Named after astronomer Edwin Powell Hubble, the Hubble Space Telescope is carried
into orbit by the space shuttle Discovery. The telescope more accurately measures how
fast the universe is expanding, helps refine its age and discovers evidence of extra-
solar planets around sun-like stars.
1991
POLAR SCIENCES: Dinosaurs on Every Continent—SWEAT Hypothesis Published
The fossil of a 25-foot dinosaur, 350 miles from the South Pole proves they were on
every continent. An international team lead by John Goodge publishes the SWEAT
hypothesis, a theory that southwestern North America and Antarctica were once linked in
a Precambrian supercontinent called Rodinia.
1992
GEOSCIENCES: Snowball Earth Theory
Joe Kirschvink publishes "Late Proterozoic Low-latitude Glaciation: The Snowball Earth,"
a short book section in a specialized monograph. Snowball earth hypothesizes the Earth
was completely covered by ice during parts of its history. The theory attracts little
attention until expanded by Paul Hoffman and his collaborators several years later.
1992
POLAR SCIENCES: Bedrock Reached by Greenland Ice Core Project
Greenland ice core project GRIP reaches bedrock and discovers Dansgaard-Oeschger
events—rapid climate fluctuations occurring every ≈1470 (± 532) years throughout the
last glacial period.
1993
GEOSCIENCES: Oldest Known Fossils—Oviraptor Dinosaur Found
J. William Schopf publishes a description of the oldest fossils known to science—3.5
billion-year-old Australian Apex Basalt microfossils. On an expedition in the Gobi
desert, paleontologists from the American Museum of Natural History discover the
skeleton of an Oviraptor dinosaur crouching over a nest of eggs.
1994
ANTHROPOLOGY: Oldest Known Human Ancestor Discovered
Tim D. White and colleagues discover in Ethiopia, the oldest known human ancestor,
Ardipithecus ramidus, dating to 4.4 million years ago.
1996
GEOSCIENCES: First Feathered Dinosaur Unveiled
At the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology's annual meeting, Chen Pei Ji unveils
Sinosauropteryx prima from Liaoning, China. It’s the first feathered dinosaur discovered.
1996
POLAR SCIENCES: Antarctic Meteorite Confirmed From Mars
A meteorite collected in Antarctica is confirmed to have come from Mars and offers
possible evidence for ancient primitive Martian life.
1997
ANTHROPOLOGY: Neanderthal Mitochondrial DNA Sequenced
German and American researchers led by Svante Paabo analyze DNA taken from the
bone of the upper arm of the first recognized Neanderthal fossil. Studies suggest
Neanderthal and modern humans developed separately and did not form a single,
large interbreeding population.
1998
ASTRONOMY: Dark Energy Theorized
Two groups working independently unexpectedly discover the expansion of the universe
is accelerating. This leads to a variety of exotic explanations lumped under the label
Dark Energy.
1998
GEOSCIENCES: Snowball Earth Theory Expanded
Paul Hoffman, Alan Kaufman, Galen Halverson and Daniel Schrag publish a
Neoproterozoic snowball earth theory arguing that in the late Precambrian, the Earth
underwent global glaciations followed by extreme greenhouse conditions, spurring the
evolution of multicellular life-forms.
1999
POLAR SCIENCES: New Fish Species—Antarctic Ice Cap Microorganisms
Four new fish species are found in Antarctic waters, giving biologists new insights into
the processes of evolution in ecological niches. Research shows that microorganisms
can survive in subglacial Lake Vostok, thousands of meters below the Antarctic ice cap.
2000
POLAR SCIENCES: Research: Microbes Can Survive Extremes of South Pole
Evidence is discovered of microbes that can survive the extremes of darkness, cold and
ultraviolet radiation at the South Pole.
2001
ANTHROPOLOGY: Kenyanthropus Platyops Discovered
Meave Leakey announces the discovery of a 3.5 million-year-old fossil, Kenyanthropus
platyops. She believes the fossil may represent a new branch of the early human
evolutionary tree. However, some anthropologists argue that the specimen is so
distorted it cannot be properly assessed and it may not represent a valid evolutionary
group.
2001
ASTRONOMY: Stars Found 13.4 Billion Light Years Away
Richard Ellis, Michael R. Santos, Jean-Paul Kneib and Konrad Kuijken discover the star
cluster Abell 2218 about 13.4 billion light years from Earth. The age of the cluster
suggests an age when the universe was several hundred times denser than today.
2001
BIOLOGY: First Draft of the Human Genome Published
A first draft of the human genome is published. This has been followed by the
publication of the genome of many species, including NSF-funded projects such as the
Arabidopsis genome, many plant genomes and microbial genomes.
2003
GEOSCIENCES: Antarctic Dinosaurs Found—Egg-laying T. Rex Found
Separate teams find two new Antarctic dinosaurs in one week. One appears to be a
Jurassic sauropod, the other a Cretaceous theropod. Also, Mary Schweizer and John
Horner find a Tyrannosaurus rex fossil that yields evidence of blood vessels and blood
cells. It proves to be an egg-laying female.
2004
ANTHROPOLOGY: Earliest Anatomically, Near-modern Human Found
Tim D. White, Berhane Asfaw and colleagues publish the earliest anatomically near-
modern human, Homo sapiens idaltu, from Herto, Ethiopia, dated to 155,000 years
ago, found with stone tools and butchered hippos.
2004
GEOSCIENCES: New Period Added to Geologic Timescale
The International Union of Geological Sciences adds the Ediacaran period to the earth's
geologic timescale, ranging from about 600 million years ago to 542 million years ago.
It's the first new geologic period designated in 120 years.
2006
ANTHROPOLOGY: 4.1 Million Year Old Australopithecus Anamensis Skeletons Announced
Tim D. White, Gen Sewa, and Berhane Asfaw announce the discovery of at least eight
Australopithecus anamensis skeletons dated 4.2 million years ago and possibly
intermediate between ardipithicus and Lucy..
2006
GEOSCIENCES : Mammal Mix Found—Mammals Flew Before Birds
Luo Zhe-Xi and Qiang Li describe a Jurassic mammal that looks like a mix between a
beaver, otter and platypus, pushing back mammalian adaptation to aquatic lifestyles
by 100 million years. Jin Meng and collaborators describe a Mesozoic gliding mammal
that pushes back mammalian flight by 70 million years.
2007
BIOLOGY: Faster, Less Expensive Sequencing Technologies Developed
New, faster and less expensive sequencing technologies become available, putting the
sequencing of many genomes within reach, and vastly broadening the opportunities for
studies of evolution.
Credit: The National Science Foundation
http://www.nsf.gov/news/special_reports/darwin/textonly/timeline.jsp
Timeline
1543
ASTRONOMY: Sun Recognized As Center of Solar System
Nicolaus Copernicus publishes “De revolutionibus orbium coelestium” (On the
Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres), the first scientific treatise supporting the idea
that the sun is at the center of the solar system.
1572
ASTRONOMY: Unchanging Heavens Challenged
Tycho Brahe determines that the nova of 1572 shows no parallax and therefore must
be in the realm of the fixed stars, challenging the accepted view that the heavens were
unchanging. His observations later influence Johannes Kepler's discovery of the laws of
planetary motion.
1603
ASTRONOMY: Laws of Planetary Motion Discovered
From 1603 to 1605, Johannes Kepler discovers the three laws of planetary motion: 1)
The Law of Ellipses, 2) The Equal Areas Law, and 3) The Harmonic Law.
1609
ASTRONOMY: Newly Discovered Telescope Used by Galileo
Galileo Galilei turns the newly discovered telescope to the sky. Within a year, he
discovers lunar craters and mountains, the phases of Venus, sunspots, the rotation of
the sun, and the satellites of Jupiter.
1633
ASTRONOMY: Galileo Sentenced to House Arrest
Galileo Galilei is sentenced to house arrest by the Inquisition for heresy for advancing
the Copernican model of planetary motion, which argues the sun, not the Earth, is at
the center of the solar system.
1669
GEOSCIENCES: Land Formation Explained by Geological Phases
Nils Steensen, known as Steno, explains how land acquired its current conformation. He
argues that marine fossils indicate a former sea bed, which was violently uplifted, and,
afterward, undermined by subterranean forces, causing the strata to breakup, become
eroded and, in due course, form another sea bed.
1689
ASTRONOMY: Principia Mathematica Published
Isaac Newton publishes “Principia Mathematica,” which describes the physical laws that
govern the motions of planets.
1718
ASTRONOMY: Position of Stars Found to Change
Using past measurements and his own observations, Edmond Halley discovers that
stars change their positions over time.
1728
ASTRONOMY: Stellar Aberration Discovered
James Bradley discovers stellar aberration. This is the first proof that the Earth moves.
1770
GEOSCIENCES: Fossilized Mosasaur Bones Found
The fossilized bones of a huge animal scientifically described in 1795 by Georges
Cuvier and later officially named a Mosasaur in 1822, are found in a quarry near
Maastricht in the Netherlands.
1772
POLAR SCIENCES: Geographic Distribution of Organisms Studied
Johann Forster sails to the Antarctic with James Cook. His voyage around the world
includes studies of the geographic distribution of organisms.
1775
ANTHROPOLOGY: Physical Anthropology Begins
Johann Friedrich Blumenbach publishes “de Generis Humani Varietate Nativa,” which
marks the beginning of physical anthropology.
1791
ASTRONOMY: Universe Described As Expanding and Contracting
Charles Darwin’s grandfather, Erasmus Darwin, pens the first description of a cyclical
expanding and contracting universe.
1799
GEOSCIENCES: World's First Geologic Map
William Smith maps rock formations near Bath, England, making the world's first
geologic map.
1804
GEOSCIENCES: Fossils Said to Be Remains of Noah’s Flood
In “Organic Remains of a Forme r World,” James Parkinson says fossils are the
remains of Noah’s Flood. In the next two volumes, he argues fossils are the remains of
a world before people.
1809
DARWIN: Darwin Born
Charles Robert Darwin is born Feb. 12, 1809, in Shrewsbury, Shropshire, England, on
the same day as Abraham Lincoln.
1809
BIOLOGY: Evolution Argued by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
Jean-Baptiste Monet de Lamarck, the first important proponent of evolution, states in
“Philosophy Zoologique,” that heritable changes in 'habits,' or behavior, could be
brought about by the environment, and that the use and disuse of parts could lead to
the production of new organs and the modification of old ones.
1811
GEOSCIENCES: Reptile Resembling Fish and Dolphins Found
Mary Anning discovers the fossilized remains of an ichthyosaur at Lyme Regis, Dorset,
England. Ichthyosaurs are giant marine reptiles that resembled fish and dolphins.
1812
GEOSCIENCES: Fossils Said to Occur in Chronological Order
Paleontologist Georges Cuvier argues the distribution of fossils in the rock record
proves fossils occur in the chronological order of creation: fish, amphibians, reptiles and
mammals. Cuvier supports the idea of a fixed number of species.
1817
DARWIN: Mother Dies
His mother, Susannah, dies. Darwin is eight years old.
1818
ANTHROPOLOGY: Natural Selection Linked to Humans
William Charles Wells conveys his principle of natural selection among human
populations, suggesting that African populations are selected for their relative
resistance to local diseases.
1818
BIOLOGY: ‘Homologous Parts’ — Natural Selection Among Humans
Étienne Geoffrey Saint-Hilaire develops the idea of ‘homologous parts,’ arguing parts
such as a bat’s wing and a man’s arm have the same evolutionary origin, but serve
different functions.. Also, W.C. Wells argues for natural selection among human
populations, suggesting African populations are selected for their relative resistance to
local diseases.
1818-1824
POLAR SCIENCES: Red Snow Studied
The John Ross and John Franklin expeditions return from the Canadian Arctic with “red
snow”—the first microbiological study in the polar regions.
1820
BIOLOGY: Gradual Development From Matter Described
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck describes the origin of living things as a process of gradual
development from matter.
1820
POLAR SCIENCES: Books on Arctic Environments Published
William Scoresby Jr., publishes several books from 1820 to 1823, describing Arctic
environments, whaling and whale biology, and several new Arctic animal species.
1821
GEOSCIENCES: Plesiosaur Skeleton Found
Mary Anning discovers the world's first Plesiosaur skeleton at Lyme Regis, Dorset,
England.
1823
GEOSCIENCES: Proof Man Lived With Woolly Mammoth
Human bones are found with those of a woolly mammoth at Paviland Cave on the
Gower peninsula, Wales, proving that the two lived on Earth at the same time.
1825
DARWIN: Darwin Studies Medicine
Darwin enrolls at the University of Edinburgh to study medicine, but he is not interested
in his studies.
1828
DARWIN: Darwin Studies Theology
Darwin enrolls at Cambridge University to study theology, but is happier collecting
beetles.
1829
GEOSCIENCES: Constancy of Change Argued By Lyell
Geologist Charles Lyell argues that the causes of change remain constant, and those
causes “must forever produce an endless variety of effects, both in the animate and
inanimate world.” Lyell’s work is thought to have paved the way for Darwin’s “On the
Origin of Species.”
1830
GEOSCIENCES: Principles of Geology Published
Charles Lyell publishes “Principles of Geology.” Charles Darwin later takes the book with
him aboard the HMS Beagle, a trip that helps form his ideas about evolution.
1831
POLAR SCIENCES: Magnetic North Pole Reached
James Clark Ross is the first person to reach the magnetic North Pole.
1831
DARWIN: HMS Beagle: Darwin’s First Examination of Evolution
Darwin begins a five-year voyage on the HMS Beagle. He considers differences among
mockingbirds in the Galapagos Islands, his first examination of the evolution of
species. His trip around the world lasts five years.
1834
DARWIN: Term “Scientist” Coined
William Whewell coins the term “scientist.” Whewell is one of the tutors at the University
of Cambridge whom Darwin meets during his education there.
1836
DARWIN: Beagle Fossils Organized
Darwin returns to London and starts organizing the specimens and fossils collected
during his voyage on the HMS Beagle.
1837
DARWIN: Darwin Draws Evolutionary Tree
Darwin draws a simple evolutionary tree in one of his notebooks below the words, “I
think.” The tree is an analogy representing common descent of all species.
1837
ASTRONOMY: Stellar Parallaxes Measured
Friedrich Struve (1837), Friedrich Bessel (1838) and Thomas Henderson (1839) create
detailed measurements of the apparent changes in position of stellar objects due to
changes in Earth’s position, leading researchers to discover that the sun is 93 million
miles away, while the next nearest star is 4.37 light years away.
1837
GEOSCIENCES: Earth Said to Have Past Ice Age
Swiss-American glaciologist and geologist, Louis Agassiz, scientifically proposes that the
Earth was subject to a past ice age.
1838
DARWIN: Theory of Natural Selection Developed
From 1838 to 1839, Darwin develops his theory of natural selection. He argues that
favorable, inheritable traits become more common in successive generations.
1839
DARWIN: Darwin Elected Royal Society Fellow
Darwin marries his cousin Emma Wedgwood. They will have 10 children. He also
becomes a Fellow of the Royal Society, where Charles becomes the third elected Darwin.
His family will hold father to son elections for 201 years until the death of his grandson,
Sir Charles Galton Darwin.
1841
GEOSCIENCES: Geologic Eras Proposed—“Dinosaur” Coined
William Smith’s nephew, John Phillips, formally proposes the geologic eras Paleozoic,
Mesozoic and Cainozoic (Cenozoic). Also in this year, English anatomist Sir Richard
Owen proposes the term Dinosauria (“terrible lizards”). He later will be an outspoken
critic of Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection.
1841
POLAR SCIENCES: Ross Ice Shelf Discovered
James Clark Ross discovers the Ross Ice Shelf, the largest ice shelf in Antarctica—an
area about the size of France.
1842
DARWIN: Darwin Sketches Theory of Evolution
Darwin writes the first sketch of his theory of evolution, which he calls transmutation. In
it he notes transmutation obeys strict laws of nature. During this time, Darwin thought
these "laws of nature" were set forth by God during creation. He also outlines reasons
not to publish his ideas.
1843
POLAR SCIENCES: Description of Emperor Penguin Published
Joseph Dalton Hooker publishes “The Zoology of the Antarctic Voyage of HM Ships
Erebus and Terror.” It includes the first definitive description of the emperor penguin.
1844
DARWIN: Secret Essay on Evolution
Darwin secretly writes an essay on evolution by natural selection and tells his wife to
have it published in the event of his death. Later he writes to English botanist Joseph
Dalton Hooker, telling him of his ideas about evolution, saying it is “like confessing a
murder.”
1847
POLAR SCIENCES: “Flora Antarctica” Published
Joseph Dalton Hooker publishes “Flora Antarctica,” still widely used as a reference.
1848
ANTHROPOLOGY: Neanderthal Man Discovered
A lieutenant preparing an artillery battery in old Forbes quarry in Gibraltar, England,
discovers a distinctive skull that scientists call Gibraltar Man. Later it comes to be called
Neanderthal Man.
1855
BIOLOGY: Evolution Seen As Universal Principle
Herbert Spencer begins publishing a projected 10 volume work concerning the principles
of synthetic philosophy, in which evolution is invoked as a universal principle that
involves progress through stages toward greater complexity.
1856
ANTHROPOLOGY: Early Variant of Homo Sapiens Found
Fossils found at Neanderthal in the Neander Valley near Dusseldorf, Germany, are
identified as an early variant of Homo sapiens.
1856
GEOSCIENCES: Theory of Multiple Creations
Louis Agassiz publishes “Essay on Classification,” advocating a theory of multiple
creations and contradicting both evolution and Noah’s ark.
1858
DARWIN: Wallace’s Theory of Natural Selection
Alfred Russel Wallace informs Darwin that he independently arrived at a theory of
natural selection nearly identical to Darwin’s. Both theories are presented to the Linnean
Society of London, the world’s oldest existing biological society. Response is subdued.
1858
BIOLOGY: Theory of Evolution Presented in London
The Darwin-Wallace paper is read to the Linnean Society of London.
1858
GEOSCIENCES: First U.S. Dinosaur Skeleton Excavated
The first dinosaur skeleton, a hadrosaurus, is excavated in the United States and
described by Joseph Leidy.
1859
ASTRONOMY: Origin of Species Published
“On The Origin of Species” is published. Some argue astronomers, such as Pierre-
Simon de Laplace, paved the way for its acceptance with prior discussions of
cosmological evolution.
1859
POLAR SCIENCES: “On The Origin of Species” Published
“On The Origin of Species” is published. Darwin’s trip to New Zealand’s Polar Regions in
1835 aboard the HMS Beagle helps shape his ideas.
1859
DARWIN: Origin of Species Published
“On The Origin of Species” is published. The initial printing of 1,250 copies nearly sells
out in a day at a price of 15 shillings.
1859
ANTHROPOLOGY: “On The Origin of Species” Published
“On The Origin of Species” is published. It does not overtly mention the evolution of
man.
1859
BIOLOGY: “On The Origin of Species” Published
“On The Origin of Species” is published. It forever changes how the world views living
organisms.
1859
GEOSCIENCES: “On The Origin of Species” Published
“On The Origin of Species” is published. Darwin, an experienced geologist and secretary
of the London Geological Society from 1838 to 1841, devotes a large part of it to
geological evidence.
1860
DARWIN: Darwin’s Theory Attacked
Samuel Wilberforce, a bishop in the Church of England, attacks Darwin’s theory at a
meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. Biologist Thomas
Huxley, known as “Darwin’s Bulldog,” and Joseph Hooker defend Darwin’s work.
1861
GEOSCIENCES: Removal of "Creation" Date From Bible Proposed
Geological Society of London President Leonard Horner proposes removing the world's
"creation" date of 4004 BC from the English Bible, citing geological evidence of a much
older planet.
1862
ASTRONOMY: Earth and Sun Said to Be Cooling
Physicist Lord Kelvin asserts that the Earth and sun are cooling from their initial
formation, between 20 and 400 million years ago.
1866
ANTHROPOLOGY: Human Family Tree Proposed
Ernst Haeckel proposes a hypothetical family tree that begins with a speechless ape-
man and leads to Homo sapiens. His tree incorporates several principles of Darwinian
evolution.
1866
BIOLOGY: Foundational Work for Biology Published
Gregor Mendel publishes “Experiments in Plant Hybridization.” This is a foundational
work for all of biology.
1867
DARWIN: Darwin Struggles With Theory of Acquired Characters
Darwin uses Jean-Baptiste Lamarck's theory of acquired characters to explain why
variation would not be eliminated by inheritance from a blend of the parents. Lamarck's
theory is dismissed only in 1900 with the rediscovery of Johann Gregor Mendel’s idea of
unit characters.
1867
BIOLOGY: Portions of ‘Origin’ Rewritten
Fleeming Jenkin’s review of “On The Origin of Species” argues variation would be
eliminated by inheritance from a blend of the parents. The criticism causes Darwin, in
subsequent editions, to resurrect Lamarck’s theory of acquired characters. Lamarck's
theory is put aside only in 1900, when Mendel’s idea of unit characters is rediscovered.
1868
ANTHROPOLOGY: Humanity Divided—Cro-magnon Man Discovered
Ernst Haeckel subdivides humanity into 12 species. He asserts evolution consists of 22
phases, the 21st being the "missing link" between apes and humans. Also, French
geologist, Louis Lartet, discovers ancient skeletons that he calls Cro-magnon Man, who
is thought to be more evolved than Neanderthal Man.
1869
ASTRONOMY: Journal Nature First Published
English scientist and astronomer Joseph Lockyer starts the scientific journal Nature.
1869
BIOLOGY: DNA Isolated
Swiss physician Friedrich Miescher isolates DNA after discovering a microscopic substance
in the pus of discarded surgical bandages.
1871
DARWIN: “The Descent of Man” Published
Darwin publicizes “The Descent of Man.” It overtly applies evolution to humans and
shocks Darwin's opponents.
1871
BIOLOGY: Sudden Arise of Species Argued
St. George Mivart argues that species arise suddenly with large-scale changes already
intact. This is in sharp contrast to Darwin, who proposed inheritance by blending,
meaning that variation would be sustained by an extremely high mutation rate.
1871
ANTHROPOLOGY: “The Descent of Man” Published
Darwin publishes “The Descent of Man.” He overtly applies evolution to humans and
postulates Africa as the site of the earliest human ancestors.
1871
GEOSCIENCES: Lord Kelvin Suggests Life From Meteorite
Mathematical physicist and engineer William Thomson, aka Lord Kelvin, suggests that
“the germs of life might have been brought to the earth by some meteorite.” The idea
still enjoys support.
1872
DARWIN: Boltzmann Supports Theory of Evolution
Ludwig Boltzmann argues the spontaneous increase in decay or disorder predicted by
the second law of thermodynamics is not germane to Darwin’s theory of evolution
because it affects paths followed by large populations of objects, but may or may not
affect individual objects wherein evolutionary change takes place.
1873
BIOLOGY: Effects on Isolated Groups Emphasized
Moritz Wagner emphasizes the effects of different environments on isolated groups of
animals.
1875
BIOLOGY: Heredity, Environment, and Behavioral Traits Emphasized
Francis Galton demonstrates “the usefulness of twin studies for elucidating the relative
influence of nature (heredity) and nurture (environment) upon behavioral traits.”
1876
BIOLOGY: Special Contribution to Evolution Published
Wallace publishes his special contribution to the study of evolution, “The Geography of
Animal Distribution.”
1876
POLAR SCIENCES: Study of Plants and Climate Published
H.W. Fielden and H.C. Hart publish “The Greenland Manual,” which includes the study of
plants and their relation to climate.
1879
GEOSCIENCES: U.S. Geological Survey Established
United States President Rutherford B. Hayes establishes The United States Geological
Survey within the Department of the Interior to classify the public lands, and examine
the geological structure, mineral resources and products of the national domain.
1882
DARWIN: Darwin Dies
Charles Darwin dies on April 19, 1882, in the village of Downe in the London Borough of
Bromley, England, where he lived for 40 years. Darwin was given a state funeral and
buried in Westminster Abbey, a few feet away from Sir Isaac Newton.
1882
GEOSCIENCES: Darwin Publishes Final Letter to Nature
Charles Darwin publishes his final letter in the journal Nature, on the dispersal of
freshwater bivalves. His obituary appears the same month.
1883
BIOLOGY: Germ-line Theory Refutes Acquired Characters
August Weismann refutes Jean-Baptiste Monet de Lamarck's theory that acquired
characters can be inherited. His 'germ-line theory’ makes it possible to understand the
genetics of animals, but not plants. As a result, it is believed that evolution can be
understood without understanding how organisms develop.
1883
ANTHROPOLOGY: Human Psychology Compared to Animals
George John Romanes publishes “Mental Evolution in Animals,” the first modern text
comparing the psychology of humans and animals in objective terms.
1883
GEOSCIENCES: Cryptozoon Defined
James Hall defines cabbage-like, reef-forming fossil algae found in oceans as
“cryptozoon.” Cryptozoon will be important to understanding molecular evolution and
the evolutionary history of life.
1886
ANTHROPOLOGY: Neanderthal Skeletons Not Modern Humans
Two complete Neanderthal skeletons are found in a cave near Spy, Belgium. The
skeletons challenge the idea that Neanderthals are modern humans.
1891
ANTHROPOLOGY: Java Man Discovered
Eugene Dubois discovers, on the island of Java, remains of what he calls "a species in
between humans and apes." He names his find Pithecanthropus erectus, or Java Man.
Today, similar finds are classified as Homo erectus.
1897
ASTRONOMY: Sun Said to Be 20 Million Years Old
Lord Kelvin gives a lecture at London's Victoria Institute claiming that the sun, which is
cooling from its initial formation, can be no more than 20 million years old. The lecture
represents a further refining of his earlier finding.
1897
POLAR SCIENCES: Small Mites Discovered in Antarctica
Discovery of small mites and collumbola, abundant among the mosses and lichens in
Antarctica.
1900
BIOLOGY: Mendel’s Work on Inheritance Rediscovered
Hugo de Vries, Carl Correns and Erik von Tschermak rediscover Gregor Mendel’s
genetics work on inheritance traits in pea plants. Mendel’s work shows that the
inheritance of traits follows particular laws, which are later named after him.
1901
BIOLOGY: Saltation Theory Developed
Hugo de Vries discovers a primrose that leads to the Saltation Theory, which says "new
species" suddenly spring into existence through "mutation," rather than by
imperceptible, gradual changes, as Darwin had proposed. In 1914, Edward Jefferies
discovers the primrose was a new variety, not a new species.
1901
POLAR SCIENCES: Antarctic Sea Birds Studied
From 1901 to 1912, Edward Wilson studies the characteristics, life histories and
behavior of Antarctic sea birds on both of Captain Robert Falcon Scott’s two expeditions
to the Antarctic region.
1902
GEOSCIENCES: Tyrannosaurus Rex Discovered
Barnum Brown of the American Museum of Natural History discovers Tyrannosaurus rex.
It’s later described and named by Henry Fairfield Osborn in 1905.
1905
ASTRONOMY: Special Theory of Relativity Proposed
Albert Einstein publishes "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies," in which he
proposes the Special Theory of Relativity, arguing that space and time are not separate
continuums.
1907
GEOSCIENCES: First Radiometric Dating Techniques
Chemist Bertram Boltwood measures the ratio of isotopes of uranium and lead in a
mineral from Connecticut and concludes the mineral formed 410 million years ago. His
estimate will be changed to 265 million, but his experiment lays the groundwork for
radiometric dating techniques.
1908
POLAR SCIENCES: North Pole Claimed by Cook
American explorer Frederick Albert Cook claims to reach the North Pole. His claims are
disputed.
1909
BIOLOGY: Evolutionary Relationships Among Species Studied
Edward Tyson Reichert begins studying evolutionary relationships among species using
differences in their hemoglobin molecules.
1909
POLAR SCIENCES: North Pole Claimed by Peary
American Navy engineer Robert Edwin Peary claims to reach the North Pole. His claims
are disputed.
1910
POLAR SCIENCES: Fossilized Glossopteris Discovered
Between 1910 and 1913, members of Captain Robert Falcon Scott’s Terra Nova
Expedition discover fossilized Glossopteris leaves belonging to an order of seed ferns in
the Antarctic region, an important link with other continents that once formed a
supercontinent called Gondwana, originally called Gondwanaland.
1911
ASTRONOMY: Color or Spectral Class of Stars Plotted
Ejnar Hertzsprung published graphs plotting color, or spectral class, against the
absolute magnitude of stars.
1911
POLAR SCIENCES: Geographic South Pole Reached
Norwegian Roald Amundsen and his party are first to reach the Geographic South Pole.
Amundsen names the plateau surrounding the Pole Haakon VII's Vidde, in honour of
King Haakon VII of Norway.
1912
ANTHROPOLOGY: Piltdown Man Found
Parts of a jaw and skull found in England are dubbed Piltdown Man. The report of a
dentist, in 1916, who said someone had filed down the teeth, is ignored. In 1953
Piltdown Man is shown to be a hoax.
1912
GEOSCIENCES: Continental Drift Proposed
Alfred Wegener proposes the theory of continental drift. His ideas will be almost
completely ignored until the late 1960s.
1912
ASTRONOMY: Redshift Discovered
Vesto Slipher is the first to observe the shift of spectral lines of galaxies, also known as
redshift, which will be important for later discoveries regarding an expanding universe.
1913
ASTRONOMY: Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram
Henry Norris Russell presents graphs similar to Ejnar Hertzsprung’s graphs. These are
now called Hertzsprung-Russell, or HR, diagrams and are the basis of the theory of
stellar evolution. Russell also suggested that nuclear energy is generated inside stars
when they reach a critical temperature.
1913
ANTHROPOLOGY: Neanderthal Man Reconstructed
Marcelin Boule reconstructs the Le Chapelle Neanderthal. He misdiagnoses certain
conditions of the skeleton, reconstructing it with a bent, stooped knee posture and
ambling walk.
1915
ASTRONOMY: General Theory of Relativity Published
Albert Einstein publishes the “General Theory of Relativity,” which relates gravity to
space-time. It is the current description of gravity in modern physics.
1917
ASTRONOMY: Evolution of Gaseous Stars Described
James Hopwood Jeans describes a general theory of the configuration of equilibrium of
compressible and non-homogeneous masses of astronomical matter, enabling him to
explain the behavior of certain nebulae and describe the evolution of gaseous stars.
1917
ANTHROPOLOGY: Nebraska Man Found, Scopes Monkey Trial Evidence
Geologist Harold Cook finds a single molar tooth in Nebraska which later is named
Hesperopithecus, or "Nebraska Man." An "apeman" picture based on the tooth becomes
key evidence in the 1925 Scopes Monkey trial. In 1928, paleontologists discover the
rest of the skeleton. The tooth belongs to an extinct pig.
1917
BIOLOGY: Alternative to Survival of the Fittest Argued
D'Arcy Thompson, in “On Growth and Form,” takes basic body plans and changes their
size and position relative to one another in geometric ways, showing how evolution
might have occurred. He argues biologists overemphasize survival of the fittest. He
argues for structuralism as an alternative to survival of the fittest.
1918
ASTRONOMY: Novae Described—Henry Draper Catalogue Published
Novae are shown to be preexisting faint stars which brightened suddenly, rather than
new stars coming into existence. Also, Annie Jump Cannon publishes “The Henry Draper
Catalogue” of stars. It gives spectroscopic classifications for 225,300 stars.
1918
BIOLOGY: Darwinian and Mendelian Views Reconciled
Ronald A. Fisher publishes “The Correlation Between Relatives on the Supposition of
Mendelian Inheritance,” which leads the way to reconciling Darwinian and Mendelian
views of evolution.
1921
GEOSCIENCES: Mountain Building Proposed Cause for Dinosaur Extinction
Fossil mammal expert William Diller Matthew suggests dinosaurs were driven extinct by
mountain building, continental uplift and replacement by mammals.
1922
ASTRONOMY: Einstein’s Equations Could Describe Expanding Universe
Russian mathematician and meteorologist Aleksandr Friedmann asserts that Einstein’s
equations could describe an expanding universe.
1923
ASTRONOMY: Space-based Telescopes Proposed
German scientist Hermann Oberth, along with Robert Goddard and Konstantin
Tsiolkovsky, considered the three fathers of modern rocketry, propose propelling a
telescope into Earth orbit by a rocket.
1924
ASTRONOMY: Mass-luminosity Relationship Discovered
Arthur Eddington discovers the relationship between a star’s intrinsic brightness and its
mass, the so-called mass-luminosity relationship.
1925
ANTHROPOLOGY: Description of Australopithecus Published
Raymond Dart publishes the first description of the new genus Australopithecus based
on the Taung child skull found in 1924 in Buxton Limeworks in South Africa.
Identification of this ape-man as a human ancestor is skeptically received, particularly
since its small brain and large teeth are opposite of Piltdown Man.
1926
ASTRONOMY: A Key to Stellar Evolution Discovered
In 1926 and 1927, Hermann Vogt and Henry Norris Russell independently discover a
star’s mass and its chemical composition determine its structure. Their findings are
important for determining a star’s life-history, a chief aspect of stellar evolution.
1926
POLAR SCIENCES: North Pole Sighted—Arctic Ecology Described
Norwegian Roald Amundsen makes the first undisputed sighting of the North Pole from
the airship Norge and Alwin Pedersen publishes the first detailed accounts of the
ecology of Arctic birds and mammals in Northeast Greenland, where he has spent
several years working with trappers. He publishes several accounts until 1962.
1928
ANTHROPOLOGY: Milestone Book: “The Antiquity of Man” Published
Sir Arthur Keith develops his version of the human family tree. Keith, one of Britain’s
most respected researchers is taken in by the Piltdown Man hoax. His book, “The
Antiquity of Man,” is a milestone in evolutionary research.
1929
ASTRONOMY: Expanding Universe Discovered—Energy Source for Stars
Edwin Powell Hubble discovers that “red shift” increases with distance, showing that
galaxies are moving apart with a speed that is proportional to their distance. The
finding is further evidence the universe is expanding. George Gamow also speculates
that hydrogen fusion is the energy source for stars.
1929
GEOSCIENCES: Cause for Dinosaur Extinction—Transitional Animal Found
Paleobiologist Alexander Audova publishes a paper rejecting racial senility as the cause
of dinosaur extinction instead pointing to environmental change. Also beginning this
year through 1934, expeditions led by Gunnar Save-Soderbergh find remains of a
transitional animal between fish and amphibian on Greenland. The species is named
Ichthyostega soderberghi.
1930
BIOLOGY: Clandestine Evolution—Genetical Theory of Natural Selection
Gavin de Beer theorizes an organism’s anatomy develops through acceleration and
retardation. His clandestine evolution explains sudden changes in the fossil record
which are apparently at odds with Darwin's gradualist theory of evolution. R.A. Fisher
publishes, “The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection,” which reconciles Mendelian
genetics with natural selection.
1930
ASTRONOMY: Reliable Age for the Universe
Astrophysicist Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar describes the maximum mass of a white
dwarf star above which the star will collapse into a neutron star or a black hole.
“Chandrasekhar's limit” later is used to show the universe is speeding up, not slowing
down as expected. Chandrasekhar receives the Nobel Prize in 1983.
1931
BIOLOGY: 'Random Drift’ Significant Factor in Evolution
Sewall Wright concludes that 'random drift,' or chance fluctuation of gene populations, is
a significant factor in evolution. His works contribute to the Modern Synthesis, the
combining of natural selection and Mendelian genetics.
1933
BIOLOGY: Genetics, Development and Evolution Integrated
Richard Goldschmidt concludes evolution is the result of sudden changes by successful
mutations that act on early embryological processes. Goldschmidt is considered the first
to integrate genetics, development and evolution.
1933
POLAR SCIENCES: Most Southerly Plants Found
The second Byrd Expedition (1933-1935) finds lichens, a type of fungus, half way up
the Scott Glacier. They are the most southerly plants yet found.
1936
ANTHROPOLOGY: Adult Australopithecus Fossils Discovered
Robert Broom discovers the first adult Australopithecus at Sterkfontein and establishes
it as an early hominid. Over the next 10 years, more fossils representing two separate
species Australopithecine are found at Kromdrai, Swartkrans and other sites in
Transvaal Province, South Africa, dating from 1.8 to 2.5 million years ago.
1938
ASTRONOMY: Energy Source for Stars Proved
Hans Bethe and colleagues publish a series of papers in a treatise called “Energy
Production in Stars,” which explains all the known facts of stellar energy and proves the
presence of nuclear reactions. He wins the Nobel Prize for this work in 1967.
1942
BIOLOGY: “The Modern Synthesis” Published
In “The Modern Synthesis,” Julian Huxley brings together ideas from several biological
specialties to form a unified theory of evolution.
1942
GEOSCIENCES: Contributions to Neo-Darwinian Synthesis
Ernst Mayr publishes “Systematics and the Origin of Species,” and Julian Huxley
publishes “Evolution: The Modern Synthesis.” Both books are significant contributions to
the neo-Darwinian synthesis combining elements of natural selection, genetics,
mutation, population biology and paleontology.
1944
BIOLOGY: Living Organisms Said to Pass Along Information
Erwin Schrödinger publishes “What is Life?” In it he argues that living organisms store
and pass along information. This book will inspire James Watson, Francis Crick and
Maurice Wilkins, who will share the Nobel Prize for discovering, in 1953, the structure of
DNA.
1947
ANTHROPOLOGY: “Up From The Ape” Published, Includes Piltdown Man
Harvard anthropology professor Earnest Hooton publishes “Up From The Ape,” a
treatise on human evolution. His evolution tree includes the Piltdown Man on the main
stem leading to modern humans.
1947
GEOSCIENCES: Carbon-14 Dating
Willard Libby introduces carbon-14 dating.
1948
ASTRONOMY: Steady State Cosmology Proposed—Hale Telescope.
Steady State Cosmology, which hypothesizes continuous creation of matter, is proposed
by Hermann Bondi, Thomas Gold and Fred Hoyle. The Palomar Observatory in San
Diego County, Calif., also opens this year. Its 200 inch Hale telescope helps
understand distant galaxies and quasars. Edwin Hubble is first to use the telescope.
1948
BIOLOGY: Transposition of Mobile Genetic Elements Discovered
Barbara McClintock discovers the transposition of mobile genetic elements, i.e., they
change position on the chromosome. She receives a Nobel Prize for her work in 1983.
1950
ASTRONOMY: Term "Big Bang'' Coined
British astronomer Fred Hoyle coins the term "big bang'' to describe the theory that the
universe was born at one moment, about ten thousand million years ago and its
galaxies are still expanding. Hoyle meant the term as a rebuke, arguing instead that
the universe is in a steady state.
1951
ANTHROPOLOGY: Physical Anthropology Redefined
Sherwood Washburn publishes “The New Physical Anthropology,” emphasizing
multidisciplinary and integrative approaches to understanding human evolution through
genetics, behavioral and anatomical studies of humans and nonhuman primates in
both the laboratory and field.
1953
ANTHROPOLOGY: Use of Fire at Kalambo Falls, Zambia
J. Desmond Clark finds evidence of fire use at an archeological site in Kalambo Falls,
Zambia. Use of the site dates from 300,000 years to 250 A.D.
1953
BIOLOGY: First Accurate Model of DNA Published
James Watson, Francis Crick and Maurice Wilkins publish the first accurate model of
DNA structure in the journal Nature. They were awarded the Nobel Prize for this work in
1962.
1956
GEOSCIENCES: Meteorite Impact Proposed Cause For Dinosaur Extinction
Paleontologist M.W. de Laubenfels publishes a paper suggesting that the dinosaurs
were driven to extinction by a meteorite impact. His paper will not be taken seriously,
but this hypothesis will be presented again in 1980 with more compelling evidence.
1957
ASTRONOMY: Origin of Elements Proposed
William Fowler, Margret Burbridge, Geoffrey Burbridge and Fred Hoyle explain how
nuclear reactions in stars convert one chemical element or isotope into another to
produce the universe's existing elements. William Fowler receives the Nobel Prize for his
contribution to their paper, “Synthesis of the Elements in Stars” in 1983.
1959
ANTHROPOLOGY: 1.75 Million-Year-Old Skull Found
Louis and Mary Leakey discover the skull of Zinjanthropus bosei, an early hominid
dated using a potassium-argon method to 1.75 million years ago. They make the
discovery at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania. It is their first major find and the first major
early hominid find in eastern Africa.
1959
POLAR SCIENCES: First Illustrated Work on Arctic Plant Life Published
Nicholas Polunin publishes the first comprehensive and illustrated “Circumpolar Arctic
Flora,” his first volume in a projected series of four books dealing with the plants of the
Arctic.
1960
ANTHROPOLOGY: First Species of Homo Genus Possibly Found
Louis and Mary Leakey discover Homo habilis at Olduvai Gorge in northern Tanzania.
Homo habilis is arguably the first species of the genus Homo.
1960
POLAR SCIENCES: Hidden Mountain Ranges Discovered in Antarctica
Radio echo, sub-ice topography in Antarctica reveals hidden mountain ranges.
1961
BIOLOGY: Game Theory Apply to Evolutionary Biology
Richard C. Lewontin is the first to apply game theory to evolutionary biology. The
application pits species against nature in seeking survival strategies.
1962
ANTHROPOLOGY: Humans and Chimpanzees Closely Related
Morris Goodman first proposes that humans and chimpanzees are more closely related
than chimpanzees and gorillas based on immunochemical evidence.
1963
ASTRONOMY: Concept of Supermassive Stars — Discovery of Quasars
William Fowler and Fred Hoyle introduce the concept of supermassive stars—
hypothetical stars whose mass exceeds 60 times the mass of the sun. Also, the
discovery of quasars provides observational evidence that the early universe differed
from the universe of today.
1964
BIOLOGY: Existence of Sterile Castes in Insects Explained
William D. Hamilton defines 'inclusive fitness' as a formal way to show that relatives
have evolutionary effects on each other, as a result of shared genes. Hamilton’s idea
expands Darwin's explanation of the existence of sterile castes in insects and is a
foundation of sociobiology.
1964
GEOSCIENCES: Climate Linked to Evolution of Multicelluar Life
W. Brian Harland and Martin J.S. Rudwick publish a theory that the earth experienced a
great ice age in the Neoproterozoic (late Precambrian). Rudwick suggests that the
climate's return to moderate conditions paved the way for the evolution of multicelluar
life.
1965
ASTRONOMY: Kelvin Background Radiation Discovered
Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson discover the 3 degree Kelvin background radiation,
theorized as a relic of the big bang. Also called cosmic background radiation, this is
radiation emitted when the universe was very hot.
1965
BIOLOGY: Molecular Sequences Said to Reveal Evolutionary Relationships
Emile Zuckerkandl and Linus Pauling argue that molecular sequences can reveal
evolutionary relationships in such a way that observable characteristics and molecular
functions cannot.
1966
ANTHROPOLOGY: Diversity Results From Environmental Stress
Paul T. Baker pioneeres anthropological research on human population biology viewing
diversity as an adaptive response to environmental stress.
1966
BIOLOGY: Previously Unknown Levels of Genetic Variation Revealed
John Hubby and Richard Lewontin use starch gel electrophoreses to reveal previously
unknown high levels of genetic variation within populations. Their work is the foundation
of the field of molecular genetics.
1966
GEOSCIENCES: Reexamination of Burgess Shale Fossils
Harry Whittington begins reexamining Burgess Shale fossils originally identified by
Charles Walcott, starting in 1909. During the next two decades, Whittington (with the
assistance of graduate students Simon Conway Morris and *Derek Briggs) will overturn
some of Walcott's theories and propose that most of the animals left no living relatives.
1966
POLAR SCIENCES: First Deep Ice Core Samples in Greenland
The first deep ice core to penetrate the total ice thickness (1387 meters) at Camp
Century in northwestern Greenland, allows scientists to reconstruct global climatic history
from snow sediments.
1967
ANTHROPOLOGY: Split Between Chimpanzees and Humans Proposed
Vincent Sarich and Allan Wilson publish an immunological time scale for human
evolution, placing the split between chimpanzee and human at about five million years
ago.
1968
BIOLOGY: Neutral Theory of Evolution Developed
Japanese biologist Motoo Kimura develops the neutral theory of evolution. The theory
suggests almost all evolution at the molecular level is due to random drift. The idea
contrasts with neo-Darwinians, who believe natural selection is more prominent.
1970
ASTRONOMY: Singularity Theorem Proved
Stephen Hawking proves the first of many singularity theorems that provide a set of
sufficient conditions for the existence of a singularity, i.e., a point in space-time in
which gravitational forces cause matter to have an infinite density and zero volume.
1970
BIOLOGY: Synthetic Theory of Evolution—Gene Duplication
Richard Lewontin argues the synthetic theory of evolution should be expanded to
include multiple units of selection. Meanwhile, Susumu Ohno publishes “Evolution by
Gene Duplication,” arguing that duplicated genes accumulate, then mutate to have
previously nonexistent functions. Gene duplication will be seen as a major process in
evolution.
1972
ANTHROPOLOGY: Theory of 'Punctuated Equilibria’ Presented
Stephen J. Gould and Niles Eldredge argue that evolution proceeds over time by
'punctuated equilibria,' or periods of inactivity punctuated by episodic events, rather
than by slow gradualism. They also argue that the record of fossil remains found in
ancient rock layers is in fact accurate.
1972
BIOLOGY: Theory of 'Punctuated Equilibria’ Presented
Stephen J. Gould and Niles Eldredge argue that evolution proceeds over time by
'punctuated equilibria,' or periods of inactivity punctuated by episodic events, rather
than by a slow gradual process.
1972
GEOSCIENCES: ‘Punctuated Equilibria’ Proposed—Warm-blooded Dinosaurs
Stephen Jay Gould and Niles Eldredge publish their theory of punctuated equilibria,
stating that evolution often occurs in short bursts, followed by long periods of stability.
Also this year, Bob Bakker publishes "Anatomical and Ecological Evidence of Endothermy
in Dinosaurs" in the journal Nature, arguing that dinosaurs were warm-blooded animals.
1972
POLAR SCIENCES: Work on Physiological Adaptations of Mammals Published
After 40 years of research, Laurence Irving publishes the first comprehensive work on
the physiological adaptations of Arctic birds and mammals, including man.
1973
POLAR SCIENCES: Polar Bear Agreement Signed
The first circumpolar and international agreement on the conservation and
management of the polar bear is signed by the United States, USSR, Denmark, Canada
and Norway.
1974
ASTRONOMY: Hawking Radiation Calculated
Stephen Hawking calculates that black holes should thermally create and emit
subatomic particles, known today as Hawking radiation, until they exhaust their energy
and evaporate.
1974
ANTHROPOLOGY: Potential Missing Link Lucy Found
Donald Johanson recovers the skeletal remains of a female hominid dated to 2.8
million years ago. His team describes her as a new species, Australopithecus afarenis
and nicknames the female hominid Lucy, a potential missing link.
1974
POLAR SCIENCES: Tundra Seen As Key to Global Warming
Tundra, areas in which tree growth is hindered by low temperatures and short growing
seasons, is developed as a key subject in the emerging subject of global warming.
1975
ANTHROPOLOGY: Lucy Displayed As Common Ancestor
Lucy is displayed as the common ancestor of all later homonids in a new evolutionary
tree.
1975
BIOLOGY: DNA Further Defined—Human and Chimpanzee Differences
Fredrick Sanger and colleagues develop a 'plus and minus' system to determine
sequences of bases on DNA strands. Mary King and Alan Wilson publish “Evolution at
Two Levels in Humans and Chimpanzees.” They propose gene regulation, rather than
structural genes, is responsible for differences between humans and chimpanzees.
1975
ASTRONOMY: Very Large Array Radio Astronomy Observatory
Construction begins on the Very Large Array radio astronomy observatory, which
consists of 27 independent antennas, each having a dish 25 meters in diameter. The
observatory investigates radio galaxies, quasars, pulsars and supernovae. Operators
also follow up a seemingly extraterrestrial 72-second signal observed by the SETI
(Search for Extra-terrestrial Intelligence) project.
1978
ANTHROPOLOGY: 3.5 Million-Year-Old Hominid Footprints Found
Mary Leakey’s group uncovers a trail of 3.5 million-year-old bipedal hominid footprints
left in a layer of volcanic ash in Laetoli, Tanzania.
1979
BIOLOGY: Adaptionist Theories of Evolution Challenged
Richard Lewontin and Stephen Gould take issue with the adaptionist perspective, that all
traits are molded by natural selection, and parody adaptationism as “Panglossian.”
1980
ASTRONOMY: 'Inflationary' Theory of the Early Universe Proposed
Alan Guth proposes 'Inflationary' theory of the early universe. The theory proposes a
period of extremely rapid, exponential, expansion of the universe during its first few
moments. The theory attempts to explain several puzzles with the standard big bang
theory, among them, problems of the universe's homogeneity and flatness.
1980
GEOSCIENCES: Giant Comet Theory
Luis Alvarez, Walter Alvarez, Frank Asaro and Helen Michel propose a giant comet or
asteroid may have struck Earth around 65 million years ago, causing massive
extinctions and enriching iridium in the Earth’s K-T layer. The theory gains support in
1991, when the Chicxulub crater is discovered in the Yucatán Peninsula.
1982
ASTRONOMY : Cosmological Model of Universe Creation Proposed
Alexander Vilenkin suggests a cosmological model in which the universe is
spontaneously created from literally nothing. In Vilenkin’s model, the universe does not
have a singularity at the big bang and does not require any initial or auxiliary
conditions that must be satisfied.
1982
POLAR SCIENCES: Proof Antarctica and South America Were Once Connected
A fossil mammal discovered on Seymour Island proves Antarctica and South America
were connected as recently as 40 million years ago.
1984
ANTHROPOLOGY: Homo ergaster Skeleton Discovered
Alan Walker and Richard Leakey discover a nearly complete skeleton of an adolescent
boy described as Homo ergaster. The find is made in West Turkana, Kenya. Later,
most anthropologists consider these to be Homo erectus skeletons.
1984
BIOLOGY: Study of Evolution at DNA Level Begins
Kary Mullis develops the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), which opens up evolutionary
studies at the DNA level. In 1993, Mullis is awarded the Nobel Prize for this
development.
1984
GEOSCIENCES: Regularly Spaced Mass Extinctions Proposed
David Raup and Jack Sepkoski publish the controversial claim that mass extinctions are
regularly spaced at 26 million years.
1985
POLAR SCIENCES: Antarctic Ozone Hole Discovered
Joseph Farman, Brian Gardiner and Jonathan Shanklin discover the Antarctic ozone hole.
1986
POLAR SCIENCES: First Dinosaur Discovered in Antarctica
Eduardo Olivero and Roberto Scasso discover an armored, quadrupedal, plant-eating,
late Cretaceous period dinosaur on James Ross Island. It is the first dinosaur
discovered in Antarctica.
1987
ANTHROPOLOGY: DNA Traced to Common African Ancestor
Rebecca L. Cann, Mark Stoneking and Allan C. Wilson develop a genealogical tree that
suggests all human mitochondrial DNA can be traced back to a common African
maternal ancestor, dubbed African Eve by the press.
1987
GEOSCIENCES: Most Complete Devonian Tetrapod Discovered
Jenny Clack finds Acanthostega, the most complete Devonian tetrapod yet discovered.
It has evidence of functional gills as well as legs, strongly suggesting that animals
evolved legs while still living in the water.
1988
OLAR SCIENCES: Evidence of Larger Antarctic Ice Sheet Found
Seafloor drilling shows that a much larger Antarctic ice sheet existed 35 million years
ago.
1989
ASTRONOMY: Reliable Age for the Universe
NASA launches the COBE satellite to study cosmological background radiation; in 2001,
it launches the WMAP mission to study background microwave radiation. The missions
establish a reliable age for the universe and confirm its geometry is flat. The findings
garner astrophysicists John Mather and George Smoot III the Nobel Prize in 2006.
1990
ANTHROPOLOGY: Evolutionary Tree Gets New Species—Language Natural Adaptation
Researchers add Homo ergaster and Homo antecessor to the evolutionary tree. The
species complicate the evolutionary tree and later are considered to be Homo erectus.
Also, Steven Pinker and Paul Bloom argue that languages are naturally selected
biological adaptations by Homo sapiens, not a side effect of other evolutionary forces.
1990
ASTRONOMY: Hubble Space Telescope Launched
Named after astronomer Edwin Powell Hubble, the Hubble Space Telescope is carried
into orbit by the space shuttle Discovery. The telescope more accurately measures how
fast the universe is expanding, helps refine its age and discovers evidence of extra-
solar planets around sun-like stars.
1991
POLAR SCIENCES: Dinosaurs on Every Continent—SWEAT Hypothesis Published
The fossil of a 25-foot dinosaur, 350 miles from the South Pole proves they were on
every continent. An international team lead by John Goodge publishes the SWEAT
hypothesis, a theory that southwestern North America and Antarctica were once linked in
a Precambrian supercontinent called Rodinia.
1992
GEOSCIENCES: Snowball Earth Theory
Joe Kirschvink publishes "Late Proterozoic Low-latitude Glaciation: The Snowball Earth,"
a short book section in a specialized monograph. Snowball earth hypothesizes the Earth
was completely covered by ice during parts of its history. The theory attracts little
attention until expanded by Paul Hoffman and his collaborators several years later.
1992
POLAR SCIENCES: Bedrock Reached by Greenland Ice Core Project
Greenland ice core project GRIP reaches bedrock and discovers Dansgaard-Oeschger
events—rapid climate fluctuations occurring every ≈1470 (± 532) years throughout the
last glacial period.
1993
GEOSCIENCES: Oldest Known Fossils—Oviraptor Dinosaur Found
J. William Schopf publishes a description of the oldest fossils known to science—3.5
billion-year-old Australian Apex Basalt microfossils. On an expedition in the Gobi
desert, paleontologists from the American Museum of Natural History discover the
skeleton of an Oviraptor dinosaur crouching over a nest of eggs.
1994
ANTHROPOLOGY: Oldest Known Human Ancestor Discovered
Tim D. White and colleagues discover in Ethiopia, the oldest known human ancestor,
Ardipithecus ramidus, dating to 4.4 million years ago.
1996
GEOSCIENCES: First Feathered Dinosaur Unveiled
At the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology's annual meeting, Chen Pei Ji unveils
Sinosauropteryx prima from Liaoning, China. It’s the first feathered dinosaur discovered.
1996
POLAR SCIENCES: Antarctic Meteorite Confirmed From Mars
A meteorite collected in Antarctica is confirmed to have come from Mars and offers
possible evidence for ancient primitive Martian life.
1997
ANTHROPOLOGY: Neanderthal Mitochondrial DNA Sequenced
German and American researchers led by Svante Paabo analyze DNA taken from the
bone of the upper arm of the first recognized Neanderthal fossil. Studies suggest
Neanderthal and modern humans developed separately and did not form a single,
large interbreeding population.
1998
ASTRONOMY: Dark Energy Theorized
Two groups working independently unexpectedly discover the expansion of the universe
is accelerating. This leads to a variety of exotic explanations lumped under the label
Dark Energy.
1998
GEOSCIENCES: Snowball Earth Theory Expanded
Paul Hoffman, Alan Kaufman, Galen Halverson and Daniel Schrag publish a
Neoproterozoic snowball earth theory arguing that in the late Precambrian, the Earth
underwent global glaciations followed by extreme greenhouse conditions, spurring the
evolution of multicellular life-forms.
1999
POLAR SCIENCES: New Fish Species—Antarctic Ice Cap Microorganisms
Four new fish species are found in Antarctic waters, giving biologists new insights into
the processes of evolution in ecological niches. Research shows that microorganisms
can survive in subglacial Lake Vostok, thousands of meters below the Antarctic ice cap.
2000
POLAR SCIENCES: Research: Microbes Can Survive Extremes of South Pole
Evidence is discovered of microbes that can survive the extremes of darkness, cold and
ultraviolet radiation at the South Pole.
2001
ANTHROPOLOGY: Kenyanthropus Platyops Discovered
Meave Leakey announces the discovery of a 3.5 million-year-old fossil, Kenyanthropus
platyops. She believes the fossil may represent a new branch of the early human
evolutionary tree. However, some anthropologists argue that the specimen is so
distorted it cannot be properly assessed and it may not represent a valid evolutionary
group.
2001
ASTRONOMY: Stars Found 13.4 Billion Light Years Away
Richard Ellis, Michael R. Santos, Jean-Paul Kneib and Konrad Kuijken discover the star
cluster Abell 2218 about 13.4 billion light years from Earth. The age of the cluster
suggests an age when the universe was several hundred times denser than today.
2001
BIOLOGY: First Draft of the Human Genome Published
A first draft of the human genome is published. This has been followed by the
publication of the genome of many species, including NSF-funded projects such as the
Arabidopsis genome, many plant genomes and microbial genomes.
2003
GEOSCIENCES: Antarctic Dinosaurs Found—Egg-laying T. Rex Found
Separate teams find two new Antarctic dinosaurs in one week. One appears to be a
Jurassic sauropod, the other a Cretaceous theropod. Also, Mary Schweizer and John
Horner find a Tyrannosaurus rex fossil that yields evidence of blood vessels and blood
cells. It proves to be an egg-laying female.
2004
ANTHROPOLOGY: Earliest Anatomically, Near-modern Human Found
Tim D. White, Berhane Asfaw and colleagues publish the earliest anatomically near-
modern human, Homo sapiens idaltu, from Herto, Ethiopia, dated to 155,000 years
ago, found with stone tools and butchered hippos.
2004
GEOSCIENCES: New Period Added to Geologic Timescale
The International Union of Geological Sciences adds the Ediacaran period to the earth's
geologic timescale, ranging from about 600 million years ago to 542 million years ago.
It's the first new geologic period designated in 120 years.
2006
ANTHROPOLOGY: 4.1 Million Year Old Australopithecus Anamensis Skeletons Announced
Tim D. White, Gen Sewa, and Berhane Asfaw announce the discovery of at least eight
Australopithecus anamensis skeletons dated 4.2 million years ago and possibly
intermediate between ardipithicus and Lucy..
2006
GEOSCIENCES : Mammal Mix Found—Mammals Flew Before Birds
Luo Zhe-Xi and Qiang Li describe a Jurassic mammal that looks like a mix between a
beaver, otter and platypus, pushing back mammalian adaptation to aquatic lifestyles
by 100 million years. Jin Meng and collaborators describe a Mesozoic gliding mammal
that pushes back mammalian flight by 70 million years.
2007
BIOLOGY: Faster, Less Expensive Sequencing Technologies Developed
New, faster and less expensive sequencing technologies become available, putting the
sequencing of many genomes within reach, and vastly broadening the opportunities for
studies of evolution.
Credit: The National Science Foundation
http://www.nsf.gov/news/special_reports/darwin/textonly/timeline.jsp